Summary of Freud's writings - WORD (2023)

1893 -1900

Charcot (1893)

From October 1885 to February 1886 Freud worked under the direction of Charcot at the Salpetriere in Paris. This was the turning point in Freud's career as his interests shifted from neuropathology to psychopathology, from science to psychology. The obituary, written just a few days after Charcot's death, testifies to Freud's great admiration for him. Charcot treated hysteria as just another topic in neuropathology. He gave a full description of their phenomena, showing that they had their own laws and regularities, and showing how to recognize the symptoms that enable a diagnosis of hysteria to be made. Heredity should be regarded as the sole cause of hysteria. Charcot's preoccupation with hypnotic phenomena in hysterics brought great advances in this important field of hitherto neglected and despised facts, for the weight of his name put an end to any doubt as to the reality of hypnotic manifestations.

1893
On the psychic mechanism of hysterical phenomena. [see. its Persian translation: K. Movallali, Sokhan Periodical, 1971, Tehran]
The English translation "On the Psychical Mechanism of Hysterical Phenomena" is an abridged account of a lecture given and revised by Freud. It is noted that all modern advances in the understanding and knowledge of hysteria are due to the work of Charcot. Behind most of the phenomena of hysteria there is an experience colored affectively. Equating this experience with the main traumatic experience underlying traumatic hysteria leads to the following thesis: There is a complete analogy between traumatic paralysis and ordinary non-traumatic hysteria. Memories that have become pathogenic in hysterics occupy a special position with regard to the process of wasting; and observation shows that in all events which have become determinants of hysterical phenomena, the psychic traumata have not been completely abridged. There are 2 sets of conditions under which memories become pathogenic. In the first group, the memories to which hysterical phenomena can be traced have such great traumatic content ideas that the nervous system has insufficient power to process them in any way. In a second group of cases the reason for the lack of reaction does not lie in the content of the psychic trauma but in other circumstances.

1894
The neuropsychoses of defense (1894).
The problems of the neuroses that Freud studied in 1893-1894 fell into two distinct groups, each related to what later came to be known as the true neuroses and the psychoneuroses. After a detailed study of a number of nervous patients suffering from phobias and obsessions, Freud was moved to attempt an explanation of these symptoms and thus successfully arrived at the origin of pathological ideas in new and different cases. Hysteria syndrome justifies the assumption of a split in consciousness, accompanied by the formation of separate psychic groups. What is characteristic of hysteria is not the splitting of consciousness, but the ability to convert. If someone with a neurotic disposition lacks the capacity for conversion, but in order to resist an incompatible idea he intends to separate it from his inclination, then that inclination must remain in the psychic sphere. In all the cases analyzed by Freud, it was the subject's sex life that produced a distressing affect of exactly the same quality as that associated with his obsession. In two cases considered, the defense against the incompatible idea was made by severing it from its affection; the idea itself remained in consciousness, albeit weakened and isolated. In another type of defense, the ego rejects the incompatible idea along with its affect and behaves as if the idea had never occurred to the ego. But from the moment this is accomplished, the subject is in a psychosis that can only be classified as hallucinatory confusion. The content of such a hallucinatory psychosis consists precisely in emphasizing the idea of ​​a threat from the triggering cause of the onset of the disease. The ego has resisted the incompatible idea and escaped the psychosis. In summary, a working hypothesis for the defense neuroses reads: In mental functions something has to be distinguished (affect proportion or total excitement) that has all the properties of a magnitude that is capable of increasing, decreasing, repressing and repressing, and that spreads over the traces of the memory of ideas.

The neuropsychoses of defense (1894).
Appendix: The emergence of Freud's basic hypotheses.
With the first article on defensive neuropsychosis, Freud gives public expression to many of the most fundamental theoretical ideas on which all his later work is based. At the time of writing this article, Freud was deeply involved in the first series of psychological research. In his History of the Psychoanalytic Movement, Freud explained that the theory of repression, or defense, to give it its alternative name, is the cornerstone on which the whole structure of psychoanalysis rests. However, the clinical defense hypothesis is necessarily based on occupation theory. During this period, Freud seemed to view cathexis processes as material events. The pleasure principle, no less fundamental than the constancy principle, was also present, if again only implicitly. Freud viewed the two principles as closely related and perhaps identical. It is probably correct to assume that Freud considered the affect part to be a special manifestation of the arousal sum. In the cases of hysteria and obsessional neurosis, with which Freud was chiefly concerned in the early days, affect is mostly implied. For this reason I was inclined at the time to describe the shiftable quantity in terms of affect rate rather than more generally arousal; and this habit seems to have persisted even in metaphysical treatises, where a more precise differentiation might have contributed to the clarity of his argument.

1895
Obsessions and phobias: their psychic mechanism and etiology (1895).
Obsessive thoughts and phobias cannot be counted among neurasthenia proper. Because patients who suffer from these symptoms are usually not neurasthenic. Obsessions and phobias are separate neuroses with a specific mechanism and etiology. Traumatic obsessions and phobias are associated with the symptoms of hysteria. There are two components to every obsession: 1) an idea imposed on the patient; and 2) an associated emotional state. With many true obsessions, it is evident that the emotional state is the main thing, since that state persists unchanged while the imagination associated with it varies. It is the misconnection between the emotional state and the image associated with it that explains the absurdity so characteristic of obsessions. The big difference between phobias is that in the latter the emotion is always torment, fear. Among phobias, 2 groups can be distinguished depending on the type of object feared: 1) common phobias, an exaggerated fear of things that everyone hates or fears to some extent; and 2) contingent phobias, the fear of particular conditions that do not instill fear in the ordinary person. The mechanism of phobias is quite different from that of obsessions: there is never anything other than the emotional state of fear that gives rise to all ideas capable of becoming the object of a phobia. Phobias are then part of the anxiety neurosis, which is sexual in origin.

Obsessions and phobias: their psychic mechanism and etiology (1895).
Appendix: Freud's views on phobias.
Freud's first approach to the problem of phobias was in his first article on defensive neuropsychosis. In his first work he ascribes the same mechanism to most phobias and obsessions, with the exception of purely hysterical phobias and the group of typical phobias, of which agoraphobia is a model. This last distinction is crucial because it implies a distinction between phobias with a psychological basis and those without a psychological basis. This distinction is linked to what later became known as psychoneuroses and true neuroses. The article on obsessions and phobias does not seem to distinguish between two different groups of phobias, but rather between obsessions and phobias, the latter being referred to as part of anxiety neurosis. In the article on anxiety neurosis, the main distinction was not between obsessions and phobias, but between phobias of obsessional neurosis and those of anxiety neurosis. Undetermined connections continue to exist between phobias, hysteria, obsessions and anxiety neuroses.

1895
On the reasons for separating a certain syndrome from neurasthenia under the designation "anxiety neuroses" (1895).
Editor's note, introduction and part I. The clinical symptoms of anxiety neurosis.
The article "On the basis of the delineation of a specific syndrome of neurasthenia under the description of anxiety neurosis" can be considered the first part of a journey that includes the entire work of Freud. According to Freud, it is difficult to make a general statement about neurasthenia as long as it is used to cover all the things that Beard included in it. It has been proposed to separate the syndrome of anxiety neurosis from neurasthenia. The symptoms of this syndrome are clinically much more akin to each other than to those of true neurasthenia; and both the etiology and mechanism of this neurosis differ fundamentally from the etiology and mechanism of true neurasthenia. What Freud calls anxiety neuroses can be observed in mature or rudimentary forms, isolated or combined with other neuroses. The clinical picture of anxiety neurosis includes some of the following symptoms: general irritability; anxious anticipation; sudden anxiety attacks; waking up at night with anxiety, dizziness, changes in digestive activity and paresthesia attacks. Some of the symptoms mentioned that accompany or replace an anxiety attack also occur chronically.

1895
On the reasons for separating a certain syndrome from neurasthenia under the designation "anxiety neuroses" (1895).
Part II. Occurrence and etiology of anxiety neurosis.
In some cases of anxiety neurosis no etiology is discovered. But where there is reason to believe that the neurosis is acquired, a careful investigation directed towards it shows that a number of noxae and influences of sexual life are the operative etiological factors. In the female sex, anxiety neurosis occurs in the following cases, regardless of their innate predisposition: as fear of virginity or fear of youth; like fear in newlyweds; as anxiety in women whose husbands suffer from premature ejaculation or a sharp drop in potency; and their husbands practice coitus interruptus or reservatus; Anxiety neurosis also manifests itself as anxiety in widows and wives who are intentionally abstinent; and as climacteric anxiety during the last great increase in sexual desire. Sexual determinants of anxiety neurosis in men are: the anxiety of consciously abstinent men, often associated with defensive symptoms; Anxiety in men in a state of incomplete arousal or in those content to touch or look at women; anxiety in men who practice coitus interruptus; and anxiety in senescent men. There are 2 other cases that apply to both sexes. 1) People who have become neurasthenic through masturbation become victims of anxiety neurosis as soon as they give up their form of sexual gratification. 2) Anxiety neurosis arises as a result of the overwork factor or exhausting effort.

1895
On the reasons for separating a certain syndrome from neurasthenia under the designation "anxiety neuroses" (1895).
Part III. First steps towards a theory of anxiety neurosis.
According to Freud, the mechanism of anxiety neurosis lies in a distraction of somatic sexual arousal from the psychic sphere and in the consequent abnormal use of that arousal. This notion of the mechanism of anxiety neurosis can be clarified by accepting the following view of the sexual process as it applies to men. In the sexually mature male organism there is a somatic sexual excitement, which periodically becomes a stimulus for the psyche. The group of sexual ideas present in the psyche is energized and the physical state of libidinal tension arises, which brings with it the impulse to eliminate this tension. Such a psychological discharge is only possible through so-called targeted or appropriate action. Anything other than correct action would be useless, because once somatic sexual arousal reaches the threshold, it is constantly transformed into psychic arousal, and something positive has to happen to release the pressure on the nerve endings. Neurasthenia develops whenever the adequate discharge is replaced with a less adequate one. This view describes the symptoms of anxiety neurosis as a substitute for the omitted specific action that follows sexual arousal. In neurosis the nervous system responds to an internal source of excitement, while in the corresponding affect it responds to a similar external source of excitement.

On the reasons for separating a certain syndrome from neurasthenia under the designation "anxiety neuroses" (1895).
Part IV. Relation to other neuroses.
The purest cases of anxiety neurosis, usually the most marked, are found in young, sexually potent individuals with undivided etiology and short-lived illness. More often, however, anxiety symptoms occur simultaneously and in combination with symptoms of neurasthenia, hysteria, obsessions, or melancholia. Wherever there is a mixed neurosis, it will be possible to discover a mixture of several specific etiologies. For the development of neuroses, etiological conditions must be distinguished from their specific etiological factors. The first are still ambiguous, and each of them can provoke different neuroses. Only the causal factors that can be identified in them, such as inadequate relief, mental insufficiency, or defense with substitution, have a clear and specific connection with the etiology of individual severe neuroses. The anxiety neurosis shows the most interesting similarities and differences with the other major neuroses, especially neurasthenia and hysteria. It shares a key feature with neurasthenia, namely that the source of arousal is in the somatic realm and not in the psychic realm, as is the case in hysteria and obsessive-compulsive neurosis. The symptoms of hysteria and anxiety neurosis have many things in common. The occurrence of the following symptoms, either chronic or in the form of attacks, paresthesia, hyperesthesia and pressure sores, is found in both hysteria and anxiety attacks.

On the reasons for separating a certain syndrome from neurasthenia under the designation "anxiety neuroses" (1895).
Appendix: The term “fear” and its translation into English.
There are at least three instances in which Freud discusses the different shades of meaning expressed by the German word Angst and the related terms Angst and Schreck. Although he emphasizes the anticipatory element and the absence of an object in anxiety, the distinctions he makes are not entirely convincing, and his actual use is far from always obeying them. Anguish can be translated into many equally common English words: fear, fright, alarm, etc. Fear often appears as a psychiatric term: the word that was commonly adopted for this purpose was fear. The English translator is forced to make compromises: he must use fear in technical or semi-technical contexts, and elsewhere must choose the everyday English words that he deems most appropriate.

1895
A response to the criticism of my article on anxiety neurosis (1895).
A response to Lowenfeld's criticism of Freud's article (January 1895) on anxiety neurosis is presented. Freud is of the opinion that the fear which occurs in anxiety neurosis admits of no psychic derivation, and he maintains that the fright must end in hysteria or traumatic neurosis, but not in anxiety neurosis. Lowenfeld insists that in several cases "anxiety" occurs immediately or shortly after psychological shock. Freud asserts that sexual factors play a predominant role in the etiology of neuroses. Lowenfeld reports experiences in which he saw anxiety come and go when the person's sex life had not changed and other factors played a role. The following concepts are postulated to understand the complicated etiological situation prevailing in the pathology of neuroses: prior condition, specific cause, concomitant causes, and initiating or initiating cause. Whether a neurotic disorder occurs depends on a quantitative factor, the total load on the nervous system compared to its resistance. The sizes which the neurosis reaches depend first of all on the quantity of the hereditary stain. The form that the neurosis takes is determined solely by the specific etiological factor arising from sexual life.

1896
Heredity and Etiology of the Neuroses (1896).
The article "The Inheritance and Etiology of the Neuroses" is a summary of Freud's contemporary view of the etiology of the 4 main types of neuroses he was then considering: the 2 psychoneuroses, hysteria and obsessional neurosis; and the 2 current neuroses, neurasthenia and anxiety neurosis. Opinion about the etiological role of heredity in nervous diseases must be based on an unbiased statistical study. Certain nervous disorders can develop in perfectly healthy people whose family is beyond reproach. In nerve pathology there is a similar inheritance, and also another inheritance. Without the presence of a particular etiological factor, heredity could do nothing. Etiological influences, which differ in importance and in relation to their effect, can be divided into 3 classes: preconditions, concomitant causes, and specific causes. In the pathogenesis of the main neuroses, heredity plays the role of a prerequisite. Some of the concomitant causes of neuroses are: emotional disturbance, physical exhaustion, acute illness, poisoning, traumatic accidents, etc. The neuroses have as a common source the subject's sex life, whether they lie in a disturbance of his current sex life or in important events of his past life .

1896
Other Observations on Defense Neuropsychoses (1896).
Part I. The "specific" etiology of hysteria.
"Supplementary Observations on the Neuropsychoses of Defense" ties in with a point that Freud reached in his first article (1894). The latest case of hysteria is always the seduction of a child by an adult. The actual traumatic event always occurs before puberty, but the onset of the neurosis only after puberty. This entire position is later abandoned by Freud, and his abandonment signals a turning point in his views. In a short article published in 1894, Freud grouped hysteria, obsessions, and certain cases of acute hallucinatory confusion under the name defensive neuropsychosis because these conditions turned out to have something in common. In fact, his symptoms arose as a result of the psychic defense mechanism, ie an attempt to repress an incompatible idea which had become painfully opposed to the patient's ego. The symptoms of hysteria can only be understood if one goes back to traumatic experiences. These psychological traumas are related to the patient's sex life. These sexual traumas must have occurred in early childhood and their content must be actual genital irritation. All experiences and excitements that prepare or accelerate the outbreak of hysteria in the phase of life after puberty only have their demonstrable effect because they awaken the traces of memories of these childhood traumas, which then, however, do not become conscious, lead to emotional relief and repression. Obsessions also presuppose a sexual experience in childhood.

1896
Other observations on defensive neuropsychosis (1896).
Part II. Nature and mechanism of obsessional neurosis.
Early childhood sexual experiences have the same importance in the etiology of obsessional neurosis as in hysteria. In all cases of obsessional neurosis, Freud found a substrate of hysterical symptoms that could be traced back to a scene of sexual passivity preceding the pleasurable act. Obsessions are transformed self-reproaches that have emerged from repression and relate to a pleasurable childhood sexual act. In the first period, infantile immorality, events occur which contain the germ of the later neurosis. This period ends with the onset of sexual maturity. Self-reproaches now cling to the memory of these pleasurable acts. The second period, illness, is marked by the return of repressed memories. There are two forms of obsessional neurosis, depending on whether only the content of the memory of the self-reproach compels entry into consciousness, or whether it is also the self-reproach affect associated with the deed. The first form includes the typical obsessions in which the content occupies the patient's attention and he is confined to feeling a vague displeasure, while the only affect appropriate to the obsession would be self-reproach. A second form of obsessional neurosis occurs when it is not the repressed content of the memory but rather the repressed self-reproach that has entered the representation of conscious mental life.

1896
Other observations on defensive neuropsychosis (1896).
Part III. Analysis of a case of chronic paranoia.
Freud postulates that paranoia, like hysteria and obsessions, results from the repression of distressing memories and that its symptoms are determined in their form by the content of the repressed. Analysis of a case of chronic paranoia is presented. Mrs. P., 32 years old, has been married for 3 years and is the mother of a 2-year-old boy. Six months after the birth of her son, she became withdrawn and suspicious, exhibiting a dislike of meeting her husband's siblings and complaining that the neighbors in the small town where she lived were rude and inconsiderate to her. The patient's depression began at the time of an argument between her husband and brother. Her hallucinations belonged to the content of repressed childhood experiences, symptoms of the return of the repressed, while the voices came from repression of self-reproachful thoughts about experiences analogous to her childhood trauma. The voices were symptoms of the return of what had been suppressed. Part of the symptoms stemmed from the primary defenses, that is, all the delusions that were characterized by distrust and distrust and related to ideas of being followed by others. Other symptoms are described as symptoms of the return of the repressed. Delusions that have become conscious through compromises make demands on the thinking activity of the ego until they can be accepted without objection.

1896
The Etiology of Hysteria (1896).
"The Etiology of Hysteria" can be viewed as an expanded repetition of the first section of its predecessor, the second article on defensive neuropsychosis. No hysterical symptom can arise from actual experience alone, but in all cases the memory of past experiences plays a role in the genesis of the symptoms. Each case and symptom taken as a starting point leads into the field of sexual experience. After the memory chains have converged, we come to the realm of sexuality and a small number of experiences that mostly take place in the same period of life, i.e. puberty. Continuing the analysis to early childhood, we lead the patient to reproduce experiences that are considered to be the etiology of his neurosis. Freud theorized that for every case of hysteria there is one or more events of premature sexual experience, events belonging to the early years of childhood but which, despite the intervening decades, can be reproduced through the work of psychoanalysis. Childhood sexual experiences involving genital stimulation must be recognized as traumas leading to a hysterical reaction to the events of puberty and the development of hysterical symptoms. Sensations and paresthesias are the phenomena corresponding to the sensory content of childhood scenes, which are hallucinatory and often painfully exaggerated.

1898
Sexuality in the etiology of neuroses (1896).
In every case of neurosis there is a sexual etiology; but in neurasthenia it is an etiology of the present type, while in the psychoneuroses the factors are of an infantile nature. The sexual causes are the ones that offer the doctor the closest clue to his therapeutic intervention. Heredity, when present, gives rise to a strong pathologic effect where otherwise there would have been very little. Neurasthenia is one of those disorders that anyone can easily get without having any hereditary taints. Only the sexual etiology allows us to understand all the details of the neurasthenic's medical history, the mysterious improvements in the course of the disease and the equally incomprehensible deteriorations, both of which are routinely reported by physicians. and patients to any adopted treatment. Since the manifestations of the psychoneuroses arise through the delayed effect of unconscious psychological imprints, they are accessible to psychotherapy. The main difficulties that stand in the way of the psychoanalytic method of healing lie in the lack of understanding between physicians and laypeople about the nature of the psychoneuroses.

1898
The Psychic Mechanism of Forgetting (1898).
The generally experienced phenomenon of forgetting mostly affects proper names. Two characteristics that accompany forgetting are a strong conscious focus of attention that is powerless to find the lost name, and instead of the name we were looking for, another name quickly appears, which we recognize as wrong and reject, but which keeps coming . the back. The best procedure to get the missing name is not to think about it and after a while the missing name will be triggered in the mind. While Freud was on vacation, he went to Herzegovina. The conversation focused on the state of the two countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina) and the character of their people. The discussion turned to Italy and painting. Freud recommended that his companions visit Orvieto to see the frescoes of the end of the world and the Last Judgment. Freud could not think of the name of the artist. He could only think of Botticelli and Boltraffio. He had to endure this memory gap for several days until he met someone who told him that the artist's name was Luca Signorelli. Freud interpreted forgetting as follows: icelli contains the same final syllables as Signorelli; The name of Bosnia was featured in the direction

1899
Screen Memories (1899).
The age to which the content of the first childhood memories is usually related is the period between 2 and 4 years. The most common contents of the first childhood memories are causes of fear, shame, physical pain, etc. and major events such as illnesses, deaths, fires; Births of siblings, etc. The case of a 38-year-old male with a university education who moved when he was 3 years old is presented. Memories of your first place of residence are divided into 3 groups. The first group consists of scenes that his parents have described to him again and again since then. The second group includes scenes that were not described and some of which could not have been described to you. The images and scenes of the first two groups are probably displaced memories, largely omitting the essentials. In the third group there is material that cannot be understood. Two sets of fantasies were projected onto each other and became a childhood memory of her. A screen memory is a memory whose value lies in the fact that it represents later impressions and thoughts in memory, the content of which is linked to one's own by symbolic or similar links. The concept of screen memory does not owe its memorability to its own content but to the relationship between that content and other repressed content. Depending on the nature of this relationship, different classes of screenstores can be distinguished. A screen memory can be described as regressive. Whenever in a memory the subject itself appears as an object among other objects, the contrast between the acting and the remembering I can be taken as evidence that the original impression has been revised.

1901
Autobiographical Note (1901).
Presented is an autobiographical note by Freud, written in the fall of 1899. He considered himself a pupil of Brucke and Charcot. He was appointed Privatdozent in 1885, and he worked as a doctor and lecturer at the University of Vienna after 1886. Freud wrote earlier writings on histology and anatomy of the brain and later clinical works on neuropathology; he translated writings by Charcot and Bernheim. From 1895 Freud devoted himself to the study of psychoneuroses and hysteria in particular, and in a number of small works he emphasized the etiological importance of sex life for neuroses. He also developed a new psychotherapy of hysteria about which very little has been published. ABOVE

1900 bis 1920

one thousand nine hundred
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter I: The scientific literature on the problem of dreams.
(A) The relation of dreams to waking life.
The scientific literature on dream problems is discussed. The pre-scientific idea of ​​dreams, adopted by the ancient peoples, was in complete harmony with their idea of ​​the universe in general, leading them to project into the outside world as if they were realities, things that actually only exist in their inner reality were their own minds. . The simple waking judgment of someone who has just awakened from sleep assumes that his dreams, even if they are not from another world, have taken him to another world. Two views on the relation of dreams to waking life are debated: 1) that in dreams the mind is isolated from the contents and day-to-day affairs of waking life with almost no memory, or 2) that dreams continue them with waking life and cling to them. Ideas that previously resided in consciousness. Because of the contradiction between these two viewpoints, a discussion on the subject is presented by Hildebrandt, who believes that it is impossible to describe the properties of dreams except through a series of (3) contrasts that seem to sharpen into contradictions. It concludes that the dream experience appears as something alien, inserted between two perfectly continuous and coherent lifespans.

one thousand nine hundred
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter I: The scientific literature on the problem of dreams.
(B) The material of dreams - memory in dreams.
All of the material that makes up the content of a dream derives in some way from experience. Dreams have memories that are inaccessible in waking life. It is a very common occurrence that a dream bears witness to knowledge and memories that the waking subject is unaware they possess. One of the sources from which dreams derive material for reproduction, material that is partially unremembered or used in waking thought activities, is childhood experience. Several authors claim that in most dreams elements are found that come from the last few days before they were dreamed. The most striking and least understandable feature of dream memory is found in the choice of material reproduced: not only the most important, as in waking, but the most indifferent and insignificant, worth remembering. This preference for indifferent and therefore unnoticed elements in the waking experience leads to overlooking the dependency of dreams on waking life and makes it difficult to prove this dependency in individual cases. The way memory behaves in dreams is of paramount importance to any theory of memory in general.

one thousand nine hundred
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter I: The scientific literature on the problem of dreams.
(C) The stimuli and sources of dreams.
There are 4 types of dream sources: external (objective) sensory stimuli; internal (subjective) sensory arousals; internal somatic stimuli (organic); and purely psychological sources of stimulation. There is a wide variety of sensory stimuli that reach us during sleep, from the inevitable ones that the dream state itself necessarily implies or must tolerate, to the random, exciting stimuli that can or do bring an end to sleep. As sources of dream images, subjective sensory arousals have the advantage of not being dependent on external coincidences like objective ones. When the body is ill, it becomes a source of stimulation for dreams. In most dreams, somatic stimuli and psychological triggers work together.

one thousand nine hundred
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter I: The scientific literature on the problem of dreams.
(D) Why dreams are forgotten after waking up.
It's a proverbial fact that dreams fade in the morning. All causes that lead to forgetfulness in waking life also work in dreams. Many dream images are forgotten because they are too faint, while more intense neighboring images are remembered. In general, it's just as difficult and unusual to keep what doesn't make sense as it is to keep what's confusing and messy. In most cases, dreams lack clarity and order. The compositions that make up dreams are devoid of qualities (intensity of power, non-unique experience, ordered groupings) that would allow them to be remembered and are forgotten because they usually fall apart a moment after awakening , and because most people care very little about their dreams.

one thousand nine hundred
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter I: The scientific literature on the problem of dreams.
(E) The characteristic psychological features of dreams.
Dreams are meant to be products of our own mental activity. One of the main features of dream life occurs during the process of falling asleep and can be described as a phenomenon heralding sleep. Dreams think predominantly in terms of visual images, but also use auditory images. In dreams, the subjective activity of our mind appears in objective form because our cognition views the products of our imagination as if they were sensory input. Sleep means the end of the authority of the self, so falling asleep brings with it a degree of passivity. The literature dealing with the psychological characteristics of dreams presents a very wide range of values ​​that it attaches to dreams as psychic products. This ranges from the deepest disparagement through hints of undisclosed value to an overvaluation that places dreams far above all waking life functions.

one thousand nine hundred
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter I: The scientific literature on the problem of dreams.
(F) The moral feeling in dreams.
The moral sense in dreams is discussed. Some contend that the dictates of morality have no place in dreams, while others contend that man's moral character persists in his dream life. Logically, those who believe that the moral personality of man ceases to function in dreams should lose all interest in immoral dreams. Those who believe that morality extends to dreams carefully avoid taking full responsibility for their dreams. The appearance of impulses alien to our moral consciousness is merely analogous to dreams having access to imaginary material absent or of little importance in our waking state. The affects in dreams are not to be judged in the same way as the rest of their content; and we are faced with the problem of which part of the psychic processes taking place in the dream is to be regarded as real (has the right to be assigned to the psychic processes of waking life).

one thousand nine hundred
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter I: The Scientific Literature on the Treatment of Dream Problems.
(G) Sleep theories and their function.
The theories of dreams and their function are discussed. Some theories (e.g. Delboeuf) claim that all psychic activity continues in dreams. The mind does not sleep and its apparatus remains intact; However, since it falls under the conditions of the dream state, its normal functioning during sleep necessarily produces different results. There are other theories that suggest that dreams imply a decrease in psychic activity, a loosening of connections, and a depletion of accessible material. These theories must attribute to the dream properties very different from those proposed by Delboeuf. A third set of theories attributes to the dreaming mind an ability and propensity for particular psychic activities of which it is wholly or partially incapable in waking life. The enactment of these abilities usually endows dreaming with a useful function. Schemer's explanation of dreaming as a particular activity of the mind capable of free expansion only during the dream state is presented. He contends that the material with which the dream-fantasy does its artistic work is mainly supplied by organic somatic stimuli, which dim during the day.

one thousand nine hundred
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter I: The scientific literature on the problem of dreams.
(H) The relationships between dreams and mental illness.
When we talk about the relationship of dreams to mental disorders, we can consider 3 things: 1) etiological and clinical connections, e.g. B. when a dream represents, initiates, or is a remnant of a psychotic state; 2) the changes that dream life undergoes in mental illness; and 3) intrinsic connections between dreams and psychosis, analogies suggesting that they are essentially similar. In addition to dream psychology, physicians will one day turn their attention to the psychopathology of dreams. When recovering from mental illness, it is often observed that daytime functioning is normal, but dream life is still under the influence of the psychosis. The undeniable analogy between dreaming and insanity is one of the strongest factors in the medical theory of dream life, which regards dreaming as a useless and disturbing process and as an expression of reduced activity of the mind.

one thousand nine hundred
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter II: The method of dream interpretation: analysis of a dream pattern.
The dream interpretation method is presented. Freud's goal is to show that dreams can be interpreted. So far, the profane world has used 2 essentially different methods: 1) It looks at the dream content as a whole and tries to replace it with another understandable content that is in some respects analogous to the original, i.e. (symbolic dream interpretation) . 2) The decoding method, which treats dreams as a kind of cryptography in which any character can be translated into another character with a known meaning according to a set key. Neither of the two popular methods of dream interpretation can be used for a scientific treatment of the subject. The object of attention is not the dream as a whole, but the individual parts of its content.

one thousand nine hundred
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter II: The method of dream interpretation: analysis of a dream pattern (preamble and dream).
An analysis of one of Freud's dreams, the dream of 23./24. July 1895. In the summer of 1895 Freud was being treated psychoanalytically by a woman who got on very well with him and his family. This woman was involved in the dream as the central character (Irma). The dream was analyzed, one line or thought at a time. The dream fulfilled certain desires triggered by the events of the previous night. The conclusion of the dream was that Freud was not responsible for the persistence of Irma's pain, but Otto (a small colleague). Otto had angered Freud over his remarks about Irma's incomplete healing, and the dream gave Freud his revenge by reciprocating the accusation. Certain other themes surfaced in the dream that were not so obviously related to his apologies for Irma's illness: the illness of his daughter and that of his patient of the same name, the ill effects of cocaine, the illness of his incoming patient Egypt, his concern for her health of his wife and brother and Dr. M., his own physical ailments and his concern for his absent friend who was suffering from a purulent cold. Freud came to the conclusion that after the work of interpretation has been completed, a dream is perceived as a wish-fulfilment.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter III: A dream is the fulfillment of a wish.
It is easy to prove that dreams often turn out to be wish-fulfilment. In a comfort dream, dreaming has taken the place of action, as often happens in other areas of life. Dreams that are only to be understood as wish-fulfilment and that bear their meaning on their undisguised faces are found under the most common and most varied of conditions. They are mostly short and simple dreams that provide a pleasant contrast to the confused and exuberant compositions that have mostly attracted the attention of the authorities. The dreams of small children are often pure wish-fulfilment and therefore uninteresting compared to the dreams of adults. Various cases of children's dreams are presented and interpreted.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter IV: Deformation in the dream.
The fact that the phenomena of censorship and dream distortion coincide in minute detail justifies the assumption that they are equally determined, hence it is assumed that dreams take shape in individuals through the action of 2 psychic forces; and that one of these forces constructs the wish expressed by the dream, while the other exerts a censorship on that dream-wish, and by this censorship violently causes a distortion of the wish-expression. Very common dreams that seem to contradict Freud's theory because they involve the thwarting of a wish or the occurrence of something clearly undesirable can be summarized under the heading Dreams vs. Wishes. Looking at these dreams as a whole, it seems possible to trace them back to 2 principles. One of the 2 driving forces is wanting Freud to be wrong, the second motive involves the masochistic component in many people's sexual makeup. Those who find pleasure not in inflicting physical pain but in humiliation and mental torture can be labeled mental masochists. People of this type can have dreams versus wishes and unpleasant dreams that are nevertheless wish-fulfilled as they satisfy their masochistic tendencies. Anxiety dreams (a special subtype of dreams with an anxiety content) do not represent a new aspect of the dream problem, but rather raise the question of neurotic anxiety. The fear felt in the dream is only apparently explained by the dream content. In both phobias and nightmares, the fear is only superficially related to the idea that accompanies it; comes from another source. Since the neurotic anxiety derives from sex life and corresponds to the misused libido which has found no use, it can be concluded that the anxiety dreams are dreams of a sexual content in which the libido belonging to it has been transformed into pain. .

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter V: The Matter and Sources of Dreams.
(A) Current and indifferent material in dreams.
Current and indifferent material and sources of dreams are discussed. Dreams show a clear preference for the impressions of the immediately preceding days and make their selection according to different principles than in our waking memory, since they do not remember what is essential and important, but what is secondary and unnoticed. Dreams contain the first impressions of childhood and details of that period of life that is irrelevant and is believed to have been long forgotten in the waking state. In each of Freud's dreams it is possible to find a point of contact with the experiences of the previous day. The trigger of all dreams belongs to the experiences that have not yet fallen asleep. Dreams can select their material from any period of the dreamer's life as long as there is a train of thought that connects the dream day's experience to earlier ones. Analysis of a dream will regularly reveal its true psychically significant source in waking life, although the emphasis has shifted from remembering that source to that of an indifferent one. The source of a dream can be: 1) a recent and psychologically significant experience, 2) several recent and significant experiences grouped into 1 unit per dream, 3) 1 or more recent and more significant experiences, which are identified in the dream content by a mention of a contemporary but unrelated experience, or 4) an inner significant experience, which is always represented in the dream by the mention of a contemporary but unimportant impression. Considering these four cases, a significant but not recent psychic element can be replaced by a recent but indifferent element as long as 1) the dream content is related to a recent experience and 2) the dream trigger remains a psychically significant event. Freud concludes that there are no indifferent triggers of dreams, therefore there are no innocent dreams.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter V: The Matter and Sources of Dreams.
(B) Children's stuff as a source of dreams.
Children's stuff as a source of dreams is discussed. Childhood experiences play a role in dreams, the content of which one would never have guessed. In another group of dreams, analysis shows that the actual desire that triggered the dream and the fulfillment of which is represented by the dream originated in childhood, so we find the child and its urges still alive in the dream. The deeper the analysis of a dream goes, the more frequently one finds among the sources of the latent dream content references to childhood experiences that played a role. Thoughts going back to infancy stem even from dreams that at first glance appear to have been fully interpreted, with their sources and precipitating desires discovered without difficulty. Dreams often seem to have more than one meaning. Not only can they contain multiple wish-fulfilments side by side, but they can also superimpose a series of meanings or wish-fulfilments, most recently the fulfillment of a wish from early childhood.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter V: The Matter and Sources of Dreams.
(C) The somatic sources of dreams.
The somatic sources of dreams are discussed. There are 3 different types of somatic sources of stimuli: objective sensory stimuli emanating from external objects, internal states of arousal of the sensory organs, which have only a subjective basis, and somatic stimuli originating from inside the body. The importance of the objective stimulation of the sense organs has been documented by numerous observations and confirmed experimentally. The return of hypnagogic sensory images in dreams shows the role played by subjective sensory excitement. Although there is no evidence that the images and ideas that appear in dreams can be traced back to internal somatic stimuli, this origin is supported by the generally accepted influence of arousal in the digestive, urinary and genital organs on dreams. When external neural stimuli and internal somatic stimuli are strong enough to compel psychic attention, they serve as a fixed point in the formation of a dream, as a nucleus in its material; then a wish-fulfillment is desired that corresponds to this core. Sources of somatic stimuli during sleep, if they are not of unusual intensity, play a role in dream formation similar to that of the last but indifferent impressions of the previous day.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter V: The Matter and Sources of Dreams.
(D) Typical dreams: (a) Embarrassing dreams of being naked.
There are a certain number of typical dreams that almost everyone has dreamed of and which we assume must have the same meaning for everyone. Dreams of being naked or underdressed in the presence of strangers sometimes occur with the additional quality of being a total lack of such shame on the part of the dreamer. Freud deals only with those dreams of nudity, in which one feels ashamed and embarrassed, tries to escape or hide, and then is overcome by a strange inhibition that prevents him from moving and makes him feel powerless, the nagging one to change situation. The nature of the nudity involved is often far from clear. The people one is ashamed of being around are almost always strangers with vague features. The essence of an exhibition dream lies in the figure of the dreamer himself (not as he was as a child, but as he appears today) and in his inappropriate clothing (which emerges indistinctly, either from superimposed layers of innumerable later memories of being naked or as a result of censorship) . Repression plays a role in exhibition dreams; for the fear felt in such dreams is a reaction to the fact that the content of the exhibition scene has been expressed despite the ban.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter V: The Matter and Sources of Dreams.
(D) Typical dreams: (b) Dreams about the death of people for whom the dreamer feels affection.
There is a group of dreams involving the death of a dear family member; for example, from a parent, from a brother or sister, or from a child. Two types of such dreams can be distinguished: those in which the dreamer is not affected by grief, so that when he wakes up he wonders at his insensibility, and those in which the dreamer deeply regrets the death and inwardly can weep bitterly. sleep. Analysis of Class 1 dreams shows that they have a different meaning than the obvious one and that they are designed to hide another desire. The meaning of the second class of dreams, as their content shows, is a death wish on the part of the person concerned. A child's death wishes against his brothers and sisters are explained by the childish selfishness that leads him to see them as his rivals. Parental death dreams predominantly concern the same-sex parent of the dreamer. It's as if a sexual preference made itself felt at an early age: as if boys saw their fathers and girls their mothers as their love rivals whose elimination could only be to their advantage.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter V: The Matter and Sources of Dreams.
(D) Typical dreams: (c) Other typical dreams.
Since Freud has no personal experience of other typical dreams in which the dreamer flies through the air accompanied by pleasant feelings or is accompanied by feelings of anxiety, he uses the information of psychoanalysis to conclude that these dreams are impressions of dreams reproduce childhood. and they are related to movement games, which are extremely attractive to children. The causes of dreams of flying and falling are not the state of the tactile sensations during sleep or the sensations of movement of the lungs: these sensations are reproduced as part of the memory from which the dream originates, but they are part of the dream content and not its source. All of the tactile and motor sensations encountered in these typical dreams are immediately evoked when there is a psychic reason to use them and can be neglected when such a need is not present. The relationship of these dreams to childhood experiences is supported by evidence from psychoneurotic analysis.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter V: The Matter and Sources of Dreams.
(D) Typical dreams: (d) Exam dreams.
Everyone who has passed the Matura at the end of school complains about the stubbornness with which fear pursues them, dreams of failure, compulsion to repeat, etc. In the case of university graduates, this typical dream is replaced by another one that depicts them as failures in the university degree ; and in vain do they protest in their sleep that they have been working as doctors or as university professors or chiefs of staff for a year. The test anxiety of neurotics owes its heightening to childhood fears. Anxious exam dreams look for an opportunity in the past when great fear was proven unwarranted and disproved by the event. This situation would be a striking example of the content of a dream not being understood by the waking entity (the dreamer).

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VI: The Dreamwork:
(A) The work of condensation.
Every attempt that has been made to solve the problem of dreams has dealt directly with their manifest content as presented in memory. Dream Thoughts and Dream Contents are presented as 2 versions of the same theme in 2 different languages. The dream content appears to be a transcription of dream thoughts into a different idiom, the features of which are syntactical laws discovered by comparing the original and the translation. Dream thoughts are immediately understandable once we have learned them. The dream content is expressed in a pictorial script, so to speak, the characters of which have to be individually translated into the language of the dream thoughts. The first thing that becomes clear to anyone who compares dream content with dream thoughts is that a large amount of compression work has been done. Dreams are short, meagre, and laconic in comparison to the breadth and fullness of dream thoughts. The compression work in dreams becomes more apparent when it comes to words and names. Verbal abnormalities in dreams closely resemble those known in paranoia but are also present in hysteria and obsession. When spoken phrases occur in dreams, and as such are expressly distinguished from thoughts, it is an unchanging rule that the words spoken in the dream are derived from the spoken words recalled in the dream material.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VI: The Dreamwork. (B) The work of displacement.
The dream has a different center than dream thoughts; Your content has various elements as its central point. It seems plausible to assume that a psychic force is at work in the dream work, which withdraws the intensity of elements with a high psychic value and, through overdetermination, creates new values ​​from elements with a low psychic value, which then find their place in the content of the dream. If so, then in the process of dream formation there is a shifting and shifting of psychic intensities, which creates the difference between examining the dream content and examining the dream thoughts. We can assume that the dream's displacement is caused by the influence of the censorship of the endopsychic defenses. The elements of the dream-thoughts that enter the dream must escape the censorship of the resistance.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VI: The Dreamwork. (C) The means of representation in dreams.
The means of representation in the dream are discussed. Two factors are involved in the transformation of latent thoughts into the manifest content of a dream: the condensation of the dream and the displacement of the dream. The logical relationship between dream thoughts receives no separate representation in the dream. If a contradiction occurs in a dream, it is either a contradiction in the dream itself or a contradiction that derives from the theme of one of the dream thoughts. Dreams take into account the undeniable connection between all parts of the dream thoughts, combining all the material into a single situation or event. Similarity, correspondence, and the possession of common qualities are represented in the dream by union, which may already exist in the dream thought material or be newly constructed. The identification or construction of composite figures serves several purposes in the dream: firstly, the representation of a community for 2 people, secondly, the representation of a shifted community, and thirdly, the representation of a community that is only longed for. The content of all dreams occurring on the same night is part of the same whole; The fact that they are divided into several sections, as well as the groupings and number of these sections have meaning and can be viewed as information arising from latent dream thoughts.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VI: The Dreamwork.
(D) Representability considerations.
The matter of the dream thoughts, largely emptied of its connections, is subjected to a process of condensation, whereby at the same time the shifts in intensity between its elements inevitably bring about a psychological revaluation of the matter. There are 2 types of shifts. One is to replace a particular idea with another that is in some way closely related to it, and they serve to facilitate condensation in that instead of two elements, a single common intermediate element enters the dream between them. Another shift exists and is reflected in a change in the verbal expression of the thoughts in question. The direction in which the shift is taking usually results in a colorless and abstract expression in the dream-thought being transformed into a pictorial and concrete one. Of the various secondary thoughts associated with the main dream thoughts, preference is given to those that allow for visual representations. Dreamwork does not shy away from attempting to reshape maladaptive thoughts into a new verbal form, so long as this process facilitates representation and thus relieves the psychological pressure caused by the restricted thought.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VI: The Dreamwork.
(E) Representation by symbols in dreams. Some other typical dreams.
Since symbolism is used in dreams to represent sexual material, the question arises as to whether many of these symbols occur with a permanently fixed meaning. This symbolism is not typical of dreams, but characteristic of unconscious ideas, especially in people (lay people). It is found in folklore, in popular myths, in legends, in idioms, in proverbial wisdom, and in running wit to a greater extent than in dreams. The following ideas or objects show dreamlike representation through symbols: a hat as a symbol of a man or male genitalia; a cone as a genital organ; being run over as a symbol of a sexual relationship; the genitals, represented by buildings, stairways, and fountains; the male organ represented by people and the female by a landscape. The more one cares about dream resolutions, the more one realizes that most adult dreams deal with sexual material and express erotic desires. Many dreams, if carefully interpreted, are bisexual, since they undeniably allow for an over-interpretation in which the dreamer's homosexual impulses are realized, impulses contrary to his normal sexual activities. Fantasies of intrauterine life, being in the womb and the act of birth underlie a large number of dreams, which are often accompanied by fear and deal with themes such as crossing narrow spaces or being in water.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VI: The Dreamwork.
(F) Some examples. Calculations and speeches in dreams.
Some examples of peculiar or unusual representations in dreams are presented. For the purposes of dream representation, the spelling of words is much less important than their sound. To represent dream thoughts visually, Dreamwork uses all methods at its disposal, whether the awakened critic deems them legitimate or illegitimate. Dreamwork can often succeed in depicting highly intractable material such as proper names through a wild use of unconventional associations. In fact, Dreamwork doesn't do any calculations at all, right or wrong; it simply interjects itself in the form of arithmetic numbers, which are present in the dream thoughts and can serve as an allusion to matter that cannot be represented in any other way. Dreamwork treats numbers as a means of expressing its purpose the same way it treats any other idea, including proper nouns and speech recognized as verbal presentations. Dreamwork can't actually create speeches. However much speech and conversation, intrinsically reasonable or unreasonable, occurs in dreams, analysis always shows that the dream has extracted from the dream-thoughts only fragments of speech actually said or heard.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VI: The Dreamwork.
(G) Absurd Dreams - Intellectual activity in dreams.
The absurd in dreams is discussed. The frequency with which the dead appear in dreams and behave and interact with us as if they were alive has led to some remarkable explanations that underscore our lack of understanding of dreams. We often think what would that particular person do, think or say if they were alive. Dreams cannot express ifs of any kind, except by depicting the person concerned as being present in a particular situation. Dreams about the deceased whom the dreamer loved pose problems in dream interpretation that cannot always be satisfactorily resolved due to the strong emotional ambivalence that exists in the dreamer's relationship with the deceased. A dream becomes absurd when a judgment that something is absurd is among the elements contained in dream thoughts. So, the absurd is one of the methods that the dreamwork uses to represent a contradiction, alongside other methods such as reversing a material relationship in the dream thoughts in the dream content, or exploiting the sensation of motor inhibition. . . Everything that appears in the dream as an alleged activity of the judging function is not to be regarded as an intellectual achievement of the dream-work, but as belonging to the material of the dream-thought and raised from it to the manifest content. of the dream as a prefabricated structure. The judgments made after waking life about a remembered dream and the feelings evoked by the reproduction of such a dream also belong to the latent content of the dream and must be included in its interpretation. An act of judgment in a dream is just a repetition of a prototype in dream thoughts.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VI: The Dreamwork.
(H) Affects in dreams.
In the dream, the ideational content is not accompanied by the affective consequences that should be considered inevitable in waking thought. In a psychic complex that has come under the influence of the censorship imposed by the Resistance, the affects are least affected and can indicate how we should derive the missing thoughts. In some dreams, affect remains in contact with the conceptual material that has replaced that to which affect was originally attached; in others, the resolution of the complex is more advanced. The affect appears completely detached from the idea to which it belongs and is introduced at a different point in the dream where it suits the new arrangement of the dream elements. When an important conclusion is reached in the dream thoughts, the dream also contains a conclusion, but this last conclusion can be extrapolated to quite different material. Such a shift often follows the principle of antithesis. Dreamwork can also reverse the effects of dream thoughts. A dominant element in a sleeper's psyche can be an affect propensity, and this can then have a determinant influence on their dreams. Such a mood may arise from your experiences or thoughts during the previous day, or its sources may be somatic. In any case, it is accompanied by corresponding trains of thought.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VI: The Dreamwork.
(1) Secondary Review.
Most critical feelings in dreams are not directed against the dream content, but are taken over and misused parts of the dream thoughts. The censorship authority is responsible for insertions and additions (secondary revisions) in the dream content. Interpolations are less easily remembered than true deductions from dream thought material; if the dream is to be forgotten, they are the first part of it to disappear. Daytime fantasies share much of their characteristics with nighttime dreams. Like dreams, they are wish-fulfillments; like dreams, they are largely based on impressions from childhood experiences; like dreams, they benefit from some relaxation of censorship. Dreamwork uses a ready-made fantasy rather than assembling it from dream-thought material. The psychic function that performs what has been termed secondary verification of dream content is identified with our waking thought activity. Our waking (preconscious) thought behaves with whatever perceptual material it encounters in much the same way that secondary verification behaves with the content of dreams. Secondary verification is the only significant factor in dreamwork noted by most authors on the subject.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VII: The psychology of the dream processes.
(A) Forget dreams.
The psychology of dream oblivion is discussed. What we remember of a dream and what we practice our interpretive skills on is garbled by the distrust of our memory, which seems incapable of holding on to a dream and has perhaps just lost the most important parts of its content. Our dream memory is not only fragmentary, but downright imprecise and distorted. The most trivial elements of a dream are essential to its interpretation, and the work at hand comes to a halt if attention is not paid to these elements until it is too late. The forgetting of dreams remains inexplicable without considering the power of psychic censorship. Forgetting dreams is biased and serves to resist. Waking life shows an unmistakable tendency to forget any dream formed during the night, either immediately upon awakening or gradually during the day. The main reason for this forgetfulness is the mental resistance to sleep, which has already done everything possible to prevent it during the night. We need not assume that every association that arises during the interpretive work has a place in the nocturnal dream work.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VII: The psychology of the dream processes.
(B) Regression.
The path leading from the preconscious to the conscious is blocked to dream-thoughts during the day by the censorship imposed by the Resistance, but they can enter consciousness at night. In hallucinatory dreams, arousal moves backwards, instead of being transmitted to the motor system, it travels to the sensory system and finally reaches the perceptual system. If we describe as "progressive" the direction of the mental processes that come from the unconscious during the waking state, then we are talking about dreams with a regressive character. We call it regression when an idea in a dream returns to the image from which it was originally derived. Regression is an effect of a resistance to the progression of a thought to consciousness along the normal route and a simultaneous attraction exerted on the thought by the presence of memories of great sensory power. In dreams the regression may perhaps be further facilitated by the cessation of the progressive current flowing from the sense organs during the day; in other forms of regression, the absence of this accessory factor must be replaced by a greater intensity of other reasons for regression. There are three types of regression: topographic regression, temporal regression, and formal regression.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VII: The psychology of the dream processes.
(C) Wish Fulfillment.
Dreams are wish fulfillments. There are some dreams that appear openly as wish-fulfillment and others in which wish-fulfilment is unknowable and often disguised. Undistorted illusory dreams are mainly found in children; however, brief and frankly illusory dreams seem to occur in adults as well. There are 3 possible origins for craving. 1) You may have been woken up during the day and you may not have been satisfied due to external reasons. 2) It may have arisen during the day but was rejected. 3) It can have no connection to daytime life and be one of those cravings that only arises from the repressed part of the mind and becomes active at night. Children's dreams show that an unsatisfied desire during the day can act as a sleep stimulant. A conscious wish can only trigger the dream if it succeeds in awakening an unconscious wish of the same tenor and gaining reinforcement from it. Dreaming is a subdued part of the child's mental life. The remaining wish impulses of conscious waking life must recede into the background compared to the dream formation. The unconscious desires try to be effective during the day as well, and the fact of transference and the psychoses show us that they are trying to force their way through the preconscious system into consciousness and gain power. of Movement It can be said that a hysterical symptom develops only when the realizations of two opposite desires, each originating in a different psychic system, can converge in a single expression.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VII: The psychology of the dream processes.
(D) Arousal from Dreams - The Function of Dreams - Anxiety - Dreams.
The function of dreams is discussed. The dream state renders the preconscious sensory surface of consciousness much less sensitive to arousal than the perceptual surface. Interest in thought processes during sleep is abandoned while unconscious desires always remain active. There are 2 possible outcomes for a particular unconscious arousal process: either it is left to its own devices, then it eventually works its way through the conscious mind and finds the trigger for its arousal in the movement; or he may come under the influence of the preconscious, and his arousal, instead of being released, may be restrained by the preconscious. This second alternative occurs in the dreaming process. The cathexis of the preconscious, which halfway counteracts the dream that has become perceptible, binds the unconscious dream excitement and renders it incapable of disturbance. The theory of anxiety dreams is part of the psychology of neuroses. Because neurotic anxiety arises from sexual sources, Freud analyzed a series of anxiety dreams to reveal the sexual material present in his dream thoughts.

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The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).
Chapter VII: The psychology of the dream processes.
(E) The primary and secondary processes-repression.
The notion that dreams fulfill waking life pursuits and interests has been confirmed by the discovery of hidden dream thoughts. Dream theory considers the desires that arose in childhood to be the essential driving force behind dream formation. A dream takes the place of a series of thoughts that come from our daily life and form a perfectly logical sequence. Two fundamentally different types of psychic processes are involved in dream formation: one of them produces perfectly rational dream thoughts, which are no less valid than normal thoughts; while the other treats these thoughts in an enigmatic and irrational way. A normal thought is subjected to abnormal psychic treatment only when an unconscious, childhood and repressed desire has been transferred to it. As a consequence of the unpleasure principle, the first psychic system is completely incapable of bringing anything unpleasant into the context of its thoughts. You can do nothing but wish. The second system can only cathect an idea if it is able to check any development of unpleasure that arises from it. Anything that might escape this constraint would be inaccessible to either the second or the first system; for he would soon submit to the unpleasure principle. It describes the psychic process that only the first system allows as a primary process, and the process that results from the inhibition of the second system as a secondary process. The second system must correct the primary process. Among the wishful impulses originating from childhood there are those whose realization would contradict the intentional ideas of secondary thinking. The fulfillment of these desires would no longer produce a pleasurable but an unpleasurable affect; and this transformation of affect constitutes the essence of "repression." It is concluded that what is repressed persists in both normal and abnormal people and can continue to function psychologically.

The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901).
Editor's Introduction (1960).
Only one other work by Freud, the Introductory Lectures (1916-17), rivals The Psychopathology of Everyday Life in the number of German editions and the number of foreign languages ​​into which it has been translated. In The Psychopathology of Everyday Life almost all the basic explanations and theories were already present in the first editions; the bulk of what was later added was simply additional examples and illustrations to expand upon what had already been discussed. In a letter to Fliess dated August 26, 1898, Freud first mentioned parapraxis. The special affection with which Freud viewed parapraxis undoubtedly arose from the fact that, alongside dreams, it was the discoveries he had made which enabled him to pass on to normal psychic life. had done for the first time in connection with the neuroses.

Chapter I: Forgot proper names.
There are certain characteristics of forgetting proper names that are clearly recognizable in individual cases. These are cases where a name is actually not only forgotten but remembered in error. As we try to find the missing name, substitute names enter our consciousness; we recognize them as false at once, but they keep coming and are forced upon us with great persistence. The process that should result in rendering the missing name has been deferred, resulting in an incorrect substitution. Freud's hypothesis is that this shift is not left to arbitrary psychological choice, but follows predictable and lawful paths. The replaced name or names are clearly linked to the missing name. The necessary prerequisites for forgetting a name when forgetting is accompanied by paramnesia can be summarized as follows: 1) some willingness to forget the name, 2) a recent repression process, and 3) the possibility of a external association between the name in question and the previously deleted item.

Chapter II: Forget foreign words.
The current vocabulary of our own language, if restricted to the realm of normal use, seems protected from oblivion. In a foreign language, the vocabulary is markedly different, and the disposition to forget it extends to all parts of speech. An early stage of dysfunction is indicated by fluctuations in our foreign word store mastery depending on our general health and degree of fatigue. The forgetfulness of an insubstantial word is represented in a Latin quotation. The appearance or non-appearance of false substitutes in memory cannot establish a radical distinction. The disruption of rendering in the example presented was created by the nature of the subject matter in the quote itself, since a resistance to the idea of ​​desire expressed therein arose unconsciously.

Chapter III: Forget names and phrases.
Forgetting names and phrases is discussed. The forgotten or distorted matter is linked through an associative path to an unconscious thought-content, a thought-content which is the source of the effect manifested in the form of forgetting. There are several reasons why names and phrases are forgotten. Some of these are: professional complex, family complex, personal attachment, sublimated resentment towards its bearer, guilty conscience, and personal complex. In a large number of cases a name is forgotten, not because the name itself evokes such motives, but because it touches on another name, through sound and tonality, against which these motives work. The mechanism of name-forgetting is the disruption of the intentional reproduction of the name by an extraneous train of thought that is not conscious at the time. A connection between the interfered name and the interfering complex either exists from the beginning or has been established, often in a seemingly artificial way. Among the disturbing complexes, those with a personal connection prove to be the most effective. In general, 2 main types of name forgetting can be distinguished: those cases where the name itself touches on something uncomfortable, and those cases where it is associated with another name that has that effect.

Chapter IV: Childhood Memories and Screen Memories.
The earliest memories of a person's childhood often seem to have preserved indifferent and unimportant elements, while in the memory of an adult there is no trace of important, impressive, and affective impressions from that period. There is a similarity between the forgetting of proper names accompanied by paramnesia and the formation of screen memories. Of the childhood memories that have been preserved, some seem entirely understandable to us, others strange or incomprehensible. It is not difficult to correct certain errors related to either type. When the memories stored by a person are subjected to analytical study, it is easy to see that there are no guarantees as to their accuracy. Some of the memory images are distorted, incomplete, or shifted in time and place. Adult memory uses a variety of psychic material, but all dreams consist mostly of visual images only. This development is reversed in childhood memories; they are plastically visual even in people whose later memory function has to do without visual elements. Thus, visual memory retains the type of childhood memory. It has been suggested that in the so-called early childhood memories we do not have the actual memory trace but a later revision of it that may have been exposed to the influences of various later psychic forces. Thus, the childhood memories of individuals acquire the meaning of screen memories.

Chapter V: Language Decay.
The slips of the tongue observed in normal people give the impression of being precursors of the so-called paraphasias that occur in pathological conditions. Among the slips of the tongue that Freud collected, only a few can be traced back solely to the contact effect of sounds. He almost always detects a disturbing influence coming from something outside the intended expression; and what is disturbing is either a single unconscious thought manifested in a slip of the tongue, often made conscious only by exploratory analysis, or a more general psychic motive directed against the whole statement. Slips of the tongue are contagious. A slip of the tongue is cheering up in psychoanalytic work when it gives the therapist an acknowledgment that may be most welcome in a dispute with the patient. Speech errors and other errors are given the same interpretation by people that Freud advocates, even if they do not theoretically support his view and even if they are not willing themselves to forego the expediency of tolerating the errors.

Chapter VI: Read Errors and Write Errors. (A). read error.
Reading errors and writing errors are discussed. Coming to reading and writing errors, we find that our general approach and observations on speech errors apply here as well. Some examples of read errors are presented, carefully analyzed, and it is determined that the read errors are due to some of the following causes: priority problems; longstanding habits; reader preparation; the reader's occupation or current situation; something to rouse the reader's defenses; and personal reasons.

Chapter VI: Read Errors and Write Errors
(B). feather slips.
Slips of the tongue are more easily committed than slips of the tongue for the following reason: In normal speech, the inhibitory function of the will is constantly aimed at harmonizing the flow of thought and articulation movements. When the expressive movement that follows ideas is slowed down (as in writing), such anticipation easily occurs. Twenty-one examples of a clerical error due to any of the following are presented, analyzed, and reflected upon: the expression of a wish; unconscious hostility; similar topic; make a joke; and secondary review. These examples do not justify the assumption that it is a matter of a quantitative decrease in attention, but of an attention disorder caused by an external thought that needs to be considered. Among spelling mistakes and forgetfulness, the situation where someone forgets to sign can be included. An unsigned check has the same meaning as a forgotten check.

Chapter VII: Impressions and intentions forgotten.
(A). Forget impressions and knowledge.
The forgetting of impressions is discussed. No psychological theory can offer a similar explanation for the fundamental phenomenon of remembering and forgetting. We assume that forgetting is a spontaneous process that can take some time. Some examples of forgetfulness are presented, most of which Freud observed in himself. Freud distinguishes forgetting of impressions and experiences from forgetting of intentions. It confirms the invariable result of the entire series of observations: in all cases it turned out that the forgetfulness was based on an unpleasure motive. Losing something is really the same as forgetting where it was put. In healthy, non-neurotic individuals, there are numerous signs that the memory of distressing impressions and the occurrence of distressing thoughts are resisting. The architectural principle of the mental apparatus lies in a layering, a construction of superimposed instances. It is quite possible that this defensive effort belongs to a lower psychic authority and is inhibited by higher authorities. Like forgetting names, forgetting impressions can be accompanied by faulty memory; and this, where it finds credibility, is termed paramnesia.

Chapter VII: Impressions and intentions forgotten.
(B). forgetting intentions.
No group of phenomena is better suited than forgetfulness of intentions to support the thesis that inattentiveness alone is not sufficient to explain mistakes. An intention is an impulse to perform an action: an impulse that has already received approval, but whose execution is postponed to a suitable occasion. There are 2 situations in life in which even the layman is aware that forgetting can by no means claim to be considered another irreducible elementary phenomenon, but it gives him the right to conclude that there is something like unacknowledged Motives there: relationships love are military disciplines. . But women's service and military service demand that everything related to them be safe from oblivion. Freud has compiled the cases of forgetful omissions that he observed in himself. He found that they were due to interference for unknown and unrecognized reasons; or to the contrary. As for intentions of any importance, we have generally found that when dark motives are raised against them, they are forgotten. For slightly less important intentions, we can see a second forgetting mechanism: an illicit will is transferred from another subject after an external association has been made between the other subject and the content of the intention.

Chapter VIII: Chapter Actions.
The term "botch" is used to describe all cases where an incorrect result, i.e. a deviation from what was intended, seems to be the essential element. The others, in which the whole action seems inappropriate, Freud calls symptomatic and voluntary actions. No clear boundary can be drawn between them, and we must conclude that all the subdivisions made in this study have only a descriptive meaning and are contrary to the inner unity in this realm of phenomena. Also included in the category of failed actions are those actions that lead to breakage or self-harm.

Chapter IX: Symptomatic and Accidental Actions.
Accidental actions differ from "botched" actions in that they are not motivated by conscious intent, require no pretense, and occur of their own accord. We do them without thinking there's anything in them, quite randomly, just to have something to do; and such information will put an end to any inquiry into the meaning of the action. These actions, which cannot be excused by clumsiness, must meet certain conditions: they must be discreet and their effects must be mild. Symptomatic actions is a better name for these actions than voluntary actions. They express something that the person acting does not suspect in them and that he usually does not want to tell other people but wants to keep to himself. The richest source of such voluntary or symptomatic acts is obtained during the psychoanalytic treatment of neurotics. An example is given of how there can be a close connection between a symbolic action performed through the force of habit and the most intimate and important aspects of the life of a sane person. Incidental acts and symptomatic acts that occur in marital affairs (often of great importance) are discussed along with the human habit of "losing things," with examples of each. The following is a brief and varied collection of symptomatic acts found in sane and neurotic people. The images and phrases that a person is particularly attached to are seldom meaningless when judged on; and often they turn out to be allusions to a subject that remains in the background at the moment but has strongly influenced the speaker.

Chapter X: Errors.
Memory errors differ from forgetting with paramnesia only in that in the former the error (paramnesia) is not recognized as such, but is made credible. Of all failures, mistakes seem to have the least rigid mechanism. The occurrence of an error is a fairly general indication that the mental activity in question was struggling with a disruptive influence; but the particular form of the error is not determined by the quality of the underlying disturbing idea. Every time we make a leap while speaking or writing, we can infer interference from mental processes that are outside of our intention; but it must be admitted that slips of the tongue and slips of the tongue often obey the laws of resemblance, of inertia, or of a tendency to haste, without the disturbing element succeeding in imposing anything of its own on the error of the resulting language or writing. 17 examples of errors are reported.

Chapter XI: Combined Failures.
Combined failures are discussed and examples given. Losing, breaking and forgetting were interpreted as an expression of a rejected counterwill. Repeated forgetfulness led to a failed performance. A change in the form of the error while the result remains the same conveys the vivid impression of a will striving for a specific goal and contradicts the idea that an error is accidental and requires no interpretation. It turned out that a conscious intention had completely missed the success of the mistake.

Chapter XII: Determinism, Random Beliefs and Superstitions - Some Viewpoints.
(A and B).
Analysis shows that certain deficiencies in our psychological functioning and certain apparently unintentional actions have valid reasons and are governed by reasons unknown to consciousness. To be included in a class of explainable phenomena in this way, a mental error must meet the following conditions: 1) it must not exceed certain proportions, as determined in our judgement; 2) it must be of the nature of a momentary and transient disorder; and 3) if we are aware of the failure at all, we must not be aware of any reason for it. If we agree that part of our mental functioning cannot be explained by intentional imagery, we are failing to recognize the scope of determination in psychic life. A number of examples indicate that a number cannot come up with more than one name by free choice, but is strictly conditioned by certain circumstances, memories, and so on. Many people question the assumption of complete psychological determinism. Appealing to a special sense of belief that free will exists. There is no need to deny the right to feel the belief of having free will. Keeping in mind the distinction between conscious and unconscious motivation, our sense of belief informs us that conscious motivation does not extend to all of our motor decisions.

Chapter XII: Determinism, Random Beliefs and Superstitions - Some Viewpoints.
(C) and (D).
There are 2 areas in which it is possible to point out phenomena that seem to correspond to an unconscious knowledge of this motivation and are therefore shifted. A surprising and commonly observed characteristic of the behavior of paranoids is that they attach the greatest importance to the small details of other people's behavior that we normally neglect, interpreting them and making them the basis of far-reaching conclusions. Another indication that we have an unconscious and deferred knowledge of the motivation behind voluntary actions and failures is found in the phenomenon of superstition. Superstition is largely the expectation of trouble. In the category of the wondrous and the uncanny we must also include the peculiar sensations we have in certain moments and situations of having been in the same place before, although our efforts never succeed in clearly recalling the previous event.

Chapter XII: Determinism, Random Beliefs and Superstitions - Some Viewpoints.
(E), (F) and (G).
Every time Freud analyzed forgetting, it became clear that there was a connection between forgetting a name and a reason for forgetting. It is not possible to interpret all dreams, but a dream that is stubborn in trying to solve it the next day becomes more susceptible to the one week or month later after a change has occurred and the values ​​have been reduced Analysis to be .arguing clairvoyants. The same applies to the resolution of mistakes and symptomatic actions. Parapractices have a hidden motivation. The basic determinants of the normal process of forgetting are unknown, while the reason for forgetting (in cases that require special explanation) is invariably an unwillingness to remember something, which can lead to feelings of distress. Another factor is added in the forgetfulness of intention. The conflict, which could only be painfully suspected in the repression of memory, becomes tangible here, and in the analysis of the examples one can regularly recognize a counter-will that opposes the intention without ending it. Consequently, 2 types of psychological processes are recognized: either the counter-will turns directly against the intention or it is of a nature detached from the intention itself and establishes its connection to it through an external association. The same conflict dominates the "botched" actions, while in the accidental or symptomatic actions the internal conflict becomes less and less important. The most essential points of the mechanism of incorrect operation and random actions correspond to the mechanism of dream formation. In both cases we find concentrations and compromise formations. It is concluded that both major and minor psychopathologies (and also wrong actions and accidental actions) have 1 factor in common: the phenomena derive from an incompletely repressed psychic material which, although rejected by conscience, has not been undressed. any expressiveness.

1905
Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria (1905).
Preliminary remarks.
Preliminary remarks are made on a fragment of an analysis of a hysterical case. If it is true that the causes of hysterical disturbances lie in the intimacy of the patient's psychosexual life and that the hysterical symptoms are the expression of their most secret and repressed desires, then the complete clarification of a case of hysteria means the disclosure of these intimacies and the betrayal of them secrets. Freud believes that it is the doctor's duty to publish what he thinks he knows about the causes and structure of hysteria, and it would be cowardly not to do so unless he could avoid causing direct personal harm to the patient concerned . Some ways in which Freud overcame some of the technical difficulties in reporting this case history are presented. The material clarifying the case was grouped around 2 dreams and the treatment lasted only 3 months and was not carried out to the specified end but was interrupted at the patient's request when a certain point was reached.

Chapter I: The clinical picture.
The family of the 18-year-old patient (Dora) included her parents and a brother who was one and a half years older. His father was the dominant figure in the family, both because of his intelligence and character, and because of his circumstances. His daughter was very tenderly attached to him, and her early critical faculties further offended many of his actions and quirks. Her affection for him was increased by the many serious illnesses he had suffered since he was six. The patient had begun to develop neurotic symptoms by the age of 8 years and at that time began to suffer from chronic dyspnea with occasional episodes of severe symptom aggravation. Freud first saw her at the age of 16 when she was suffering from a cough and hoarseness. The experience with Herr K., the fact that he loved her, and the injury to her honor connected with it, seem to produce the psychic trauma which Breuer and Freud declared to be the indispensable prerequisite for the development of a hysterical disorder. So there are 3 symptoms, disgust, a feeling of tightness in the upper body and avoidance of men engaged in loving conversations, all stemming from this one experience. Their reasons for their illness were then considered. The relationship between Dora and her father, Mr. K. and Mrs. K., and the relationship between Dora's father and Mrs. K. were major contributors to Dora's hysteria. It was concluded that no one can undertake the treatment of a case of hysteria until he is convinced of the impossibility of avoiding mention of sexual subjects, or until he is willing to be convinced by experience.

Chapter II: The First Dream.
Dora's first dream is shown, which is repeated again and again:
Chapter III: The Second Dream.
A second dream occurred a few weeks after the first dream. Dora was wandering alone through a strange city, and she saw streets and squares. The wandering was overdetermined and brought back one of the exciting causes of the previous day. Dora returned to her own house to find a note from her mother, stating that since she had left the house without her parents' knowledge, the mother had not wanted to write and say that her father was ill. Now he was dead and Dora could come if she wanted. This was interpreted as revenge on his father. The fact that he asked a specific question: "Where is the train station?" almost a hundred times in his dream it led to another cause of the dream related to the night before. The dense forest near the train station in her dream was interpreted as symbolic geography of sex. Behind the first dream situation lay a defloration phantasy, the phantasy of a man attempting to penetrate a woman's genitals. It has been concluded that the inability to satisfy a real erotic need is one of the key features of neurosis and that neurotics are dominated by the opposition between reality and fantasy. When what they crave most in their fantasies comes to them in reality, they run away from it; and they indulge more easily in their fantasies where they no longer have to be afraid of seeing them come true.

Chapter IV: Addendum.
The theory of hysteria does not neglect to point out the organic basis of the neuroses, although it does not look for this in any pathological anatomical changes and provisionally replaces the expected chemical changes with the idea of ​​organic functions. to find, but which we cannot comprehend at this moment. Sexuality does not simply intervene once, at some point in the functioning of the processes that characterize hysteria, but provides the driving force for each individual symptom and for each individual manifestation of a symptom. The symptoms of the disease are nothing more than the patient's sexual activity. During the psychoanalytic treatment, the formation of new symptoms invariably ceases. But the productive forces of the neurosis are by no means extinct; they are engaged in the creation of a special class of mental structures, largely unconscious, which may be termed the transference. Transcriptions are re-editions or facsimiles of the impulses and fantasies aroused and made conscious in the course of analysis; however, they replace a previous person with the person of the doctor.

1905
Three Treatises on the Theory of Sexuality (1905).
Chapter I: Sexual Aberrations:
(one). Deviations in relation to the sex object.
a.) Investment b.) Sexually immature people and animals as sex objects.
Sexual aberrations are discussed. The person to whom sexual attraction emanates is called the sex object, and the action toward which the instinct tends to be the sexual target. There are some deviations from the sex object. The behavior of inverts (people with "opposite sexual feelings," such as homosexuals) varies widely in several respects: 1) they can be absolute inverts; 2) they can be amphigenic inverts, that is, psychosexual hermaphrodites, or: 3) they can be contingent inverts. The earliest studies considered inversion to be an innate indicator of nerve degeneration. The attribution of degeneracy in this sense admits of objections that can be raised against the indiscriminate use of the word in general. Nativism is only ascribed to the first class of inverts. The existence of the other 2 classes is difficult to reconcile with the hypothesis of the innate character of the investment. The nature of the investment is explained neither by the hypothesis that it is innate nor by the alternative hypothesis that it is acquired. The anatomical facts suggest that an originally bisexual physical disposition was transformed in the course of evolution into a unisexual one and only traces of the stunted sex remained. The theory of psychic hermaphroditism holds that an invert's sex object is the opposite of that of a normal person. In investment cases, a single objective cannot be applied. The sex drive and the sex object are simply very close: the sex drive is independent of its object, and its origin is unlikely to be due to the stimuli of its object. Cases in which sexually immature people (children) are chosen as sex objects and cases of sexual relations with animals are counted as sporadic aberrations. It is concluded that under a variety of conditions and in a surprising number of individuals, the nature and importance of the sex object takes a back seat. Essential and constant in the sex drive is something else.

Chapter I: Sexual Aberrations.
(2). Deviations from the sexual purpose.
a). anatomical extensions. b). Fixation of preliminary sexual purposes.
There are some deviations from the sexual purpose. Perversions are sexual acts that, in an anatomical sense, extend beyond the body regions intended for sexual union or delay interrelationships with the sex object that should normally be rapidly traversed on the way to sexual intercourse. sexual purpose. Using the mouth as a sexual organ is considered a perversion when one person's lips (or tongue) come into contact with another person's genitals, but not when the mucous membranes of the lips of both come together. With the anus it becomes even clearer that it is disgust that characterizes this sexual purpose as a perversion. Insufficient substitutes, so-called fetishes (such as hair, clothing, etc.) for the sexual object are discussed. Any factor, external or internal, that hinders or delays the attainment of the normal sexual goal will obviously support the tendency to delay preparatory activities and transform them into new sexual goals that can replace the normal one. The inquisitiveness (scopophilia) becomes a perversion when it is limited exclusively to the genitals or tries to abolish disgust or does not prepare for the normal sexual goal but represses it. The most common and significant of all perversions is the desire to inflict pain (sadism) and its reverse (masochism) on the sexual object. The role of passivity and activity in sadism and masochism is discussed against the background that both forms of this perversion are usually found in the same individual.

Chapter I: Sexual Aberrations.
(3). perversions in general.
Perversions in general are discussed. In most cases the pathological character of a perversion lies not in the content of the new sexual goal but in its relation to the normal. If a perversion, instead of only appearing alongside the normal sexual purpose and object, completely represses and takes its place under all circumstances, so that the perversion has the characteristics of exclusiveness and fixation, then we can rightly regard it as pathological. Symptom. The sex drive has to fight certain mental resistances, the most prominent of which are shame and disgust. Some perversions can only be understood if we assume the convergence of different driving forces.

Chapter I: Sexual Aberrations.
(4). The sex drive in neurotics.
The sex drive in neurotics is discussed. The only means of obtaining information about the sex life of people labeled psychoneurotics is through psychoanalytic research. Experience shows that these psychoneuroses, hysteria, obsessional neurosis, neurasthenia, schizophrenia and paranoia, are based on sexual impulses. The psychoanalytic elimination of the symptoms of hysterical patients is based on the assumption that these symptoms are a substitute for a series of mental processes, desires and desires with a mental charge, which were prevented by the effect of a special mental process (repression) from attaining a discharge permissible for consciousness in psychic activity. The results of psychoanalysis show that the symptoms are a substitute for impulses whose sources of power derive from the sex drive. For someone predisposed to hysteria, the onset of his illness is hastened when confronted with the demands of a real sexual situation. Between the pressure of instinct and its antagonism to sexuality, the disease offers a way out. The sex drive of the psychoneurotic shows all the aberrations and manifestations of an abnormal sex life. The unconscious psychic life of all neurotics shows reverse instincts, fixation of their libido on persons of the same sex. In any fairly severe case of psychoneurosis, any of the perverse instincts rarely develop.

Chapter I: Sexual Aberrations.
(5). Component instincts and erogenous zones.
Component drives and erogenous zones are discussed. An instinct is tentatively understood as the psychic representative of a continuously flowing endosomatic source of stimulus, as opposed to a stimulus that is grounded in discrete excitations coming from outside. Excitements of 2 types arise from somatic organs based on differences of chemical nature. One of these types of arousal is specifically sexual, and the organ in question is the erogenous zone of the resulting sexual component. The role of the erogenous zones is immediately apparent in those perversions that attach sexual importance to the oral and anal openings. In hysteria, these parts of the body and the adjacent areas of the mucous membrane become the seat of new sensations and changes in innervation, just like the actual genitals under the excitement of normal sexual processes. In obsessional neurosis the importance of those impulses that create new sexual goals and appear independent of the erogenous zones is striking. In scopophilia and exhibitionism, the eye corresponds to an erogenous zone, while in those components of the sex drive that involve pain and cruelty, the skin takes on the same role.

Chapter I: Sexual Aberrations.
(6). Reasons for the apparent preponderance of perverse sexuality in psychoneuroses.
(7). Indication of the infantile character of sexuality.
Most psychoneurotics do not become ill with the demands of normal sex life until after puberty, or such illnesses appear later when the libido is no longer normally satisfied. In either case, the libido behaves like a stream whose main channel has been blocked and continues to fill subsidiary channels that may have been empty before. The seemingly strong tendency of psychoneurotics to perversion is thus collaterally detectable and must be collaterally reinforced. Different cases of neurosis may behave differently: in one case the dominant factor may be the innate force of the tendency toward perversion, in another case it may be the concomitant increase in that tendency as the libido is pushed away from a goal: normal sex and Sex. Object. The neurosis will always unfold its greatest effects when constitution and experience work together in the same direction. The tendency to perversion is not very rare in itself, but it must be part of the normal constitution. It is disputed whether the perversions are due to innate determinants or arise from chance experiences. There is something innate behind the perversions, but it is innate in everyone, although as a disposition it can vary in intensity and be heightened by real influences. The postulated constitution, which contains the germ of all perversions, will only be detectable in children, although in them any drive can arise only with modest intensity. Thus a formula arises that asserts that the sexuality of neurotics has remained in an infantile state or has returned.

Chapter II: Sexuality of children:
(one). Sexual latency in childhood and its disruptions.
The reason why childhood is not given any importance in the development of sex life is due to childhood amnesia, which turns everyone's childhood into a kind of primeval time and hides from him the beginnings of his own sex life. Sexual latency in childhood and its disruptions are discussed. The germs of the sex drives are already present in the newborn and continue to develop for a time, but are then overcome by a progressive process of repression; this in turn is interrupted by periodic advances in sexual development or may be slowed down by individual peculiarities. The sexual life of children usually develops in a form accessible to observation around the third or fourth year of life. In the period of total or only partial latency, mental forces accumulate which later impede the course of the sexual instinct. By diverting sexual drives away from sexual goals and toward new goals, powerful components for all kinds of cultural attainment are acquired, a process called sublimation. The same process intervenes in the development of the individual and begins in the sexual latency period of childhood. Interruptions in latency are discussed.

Chapter II: Sexuality of children.
(2). Manifestations of children's sexuality.
The manifestations of infantile sexuality are discussed. Thumb sucking (or finger sucking) is considered an example of childhood sexual manifestations. Thumb sucking occurs in early childhood and can persist into adulthood or even throughout life. A grasping instinct may occur and manifest as simultaneous rhythmic tugging on the earlobes or grasping a part of another person for the same purpose. The sensual sucking implies a complete absorption of attention, leading to sleepiness or even an orgasmic motor response. The behavior of a child who indulges in thumb-sucking is determined by the search for a pleasure that he has already experienced and now remembers. Sexual activity is initially tied to functions that serve self-preservation and only later becomes independent of them. The 3 essential characteristics of an infantile sexual manifestation are: 1) in its origin it is connected with one of the vital somatic functions; 2) it does not yet have a sex object and is therefore autoerotic; and 3) their sexual purpose is dominated by an erogenous zone.

Chapter II: Sexuality of children.
(3). The sexual end of infantile sexuality.
The sexual purpose of infantile sexuality is debated. An erogenous zone is a part of the skin or mucous membrane in which stimuli of a certain kind evoke a feeling of pleasure of a special quality. Under the special pleasurable conditions, a rhythmic character must play a role. There are predestined erogenous zones; however, any other part of the skin or mucosa can perform the related functions. So the quality of the stimulus has more to do with the generation of the pleasure sensation than with the nature of the body part in question. A child who indulges in sensual suckling looks around his body and chooses a part of it to suckle, a part that he then prefers out of habit. A completely analogous tendency to shift can also be found in the symptoms of hysteria; here the repression primarily affects the genital zones proper, and these transfer their irritability to other erogenous zones, which then behave in exactly the same way as the genitals. The sexual purpose of the infantile drive is to obtain gratification through adequate stimulation of the erogenous zone chosen in one way or another. This gratification must have been experienced before to have grown beyond the need for its repetition. A sexual goal consists in replacing the sense of stimulation projected in the erogenous zone with an external stimulus that eliminates it and produces a feeling of satisfaction.

II: Sexuality of children.
(4). Masturbatory sexual manifestations.
Masturbatory sexual manifestations are discussed. The position of the anal area makes it well suited to act as a medium through which sexuality can be linked to other somatic functions. Intestinal disturbances, so common in childhood, do not leave this region without great excitement. Early childhood masturbation seems to disappear after a short time, but sometime during infancy (usually before the age of four) the genital sex drive usually resurfaces and lasts for a time before being suppressed again or allowed to disappear. continue without interruption. Sexual arousal returns, either as a centrally conditioned tickling stimulus seeking gratification in masturbation, or as a process of nocturnal emission that, like the nocturnal emissaries of adulthood, achieves gratification without resort to any action of its own. The reappearance of sexual activity is determined by internal causes and external accidents, which in neurotic diseases can be guessed at by the form of their symptoms. Under the influence of seduction, children can become polymorphic perverts and be lured into all sorts of sexual irregularities. This shows that there is an inherent aptitude for them in their disposition. Despite the overwhelming dominance of erogenous zones, childhood sexual life has components that involve other people as sexual objects. These are the instincts of scopophilia, exhibitionism and cruelty. The cruel component of the sex drive develops in childhood even more independently of the sexual activities associated with the erogenous zones. The drive to cruelty arises from the drive to dominate and occurs at a time in sex life when the genitals have not yet assumed their later role. She then dominates a phase of sex life called the pregenital organization.

Chapter II: Sexuality of children.
(5). Sexual investigations in childhood.
Around the same time that children's sex lives peak, between the ages of 3 and 5, children show signs of activity that can be attributed to the instinct for knowledge or inquiry. His activity corresponds to a sublimated way of gaining dominance while harnessing the energy of scopophilia. A male child believes that a genital like his should be ascribed to everyone he meets, and his absence cannot reconcile the image he has of those other people. This belief is vigorously held by the boys; he stubbornly resists the contradictions that soon result from observation; and it is only given up after severe internal struggles (the castration complex). The penis substitute, which she says is lacking in women, plays a big part in determining the shape that many kinks take. When girls see that boys' genitals are shaped differently than their own, they are immediately ready to recognize this and feel penis envy. The theories surrounding the birth of the children are discussed, as is his sadistic view of sexual intercourse. Children's sexual theories are generally a reflection of their own sexual constitution. Despite their grotesque flaws, the theories show a greater understanding of sexual processes than is given to children.

Chapter II: Sexuality of children.
(6). Stages of development of sexual organization.
Infantile sex life is essentially autoerotic, and its individual instincts are separate and independent in their pursuit of pleasure. The study of the inhibitions and disturbances in the development process of the sexual organization allows us to recognize broken beginnings and preliminary stages of a fixed organization of the partial instincts. The organization of sexual life in which the genital zones have not yet assumed their dominant role is called pregenital. The first of these is oral organization. A second pregenital phase is that of sadistic anal organization. At this stage, sexual polarity and a foreign body are observed, but organization and submission to the reproductive function are still lacking. This form of sexual organization can persist for life and permanently attract much sexual activity. Opposite pairs of drives (activity and passivity) develop to the same extent and are described with the term ambivalence. From this it is concluded that all sexual currents have been directed towards a single person in relation to whom they seek to achieve their goals, and this then is the closest possible approximation in infancy to the final form that sex life takes after puberty. It can be considered typical for the choice of object that the process is biphasic, i.e. takes place in 2 waves. The first of these begins between the ages of 2 and 5 and is stopped or reversed by the latency period. The second wave begins with puberty and determines the final outcome of sex life.

Chapter II: Sexuality of children.
(7). The Sources of Infantile Sexuality.
Sexual arousal arises: 1) as a reproduction of satisfaction experienced in connection with other organic processes; 2) by adequate peripheral stimulation of the erogenous zones; and 3) as an expression of certain instincts. Sexual arousal can also be generated by rhythmic mechanical arousal of the body. Stimuli of this kind act in three different ways: on the sensory apparatus of the vestibular nerves, on the skin and on the deepest points. Children have a need for lots of active muscle work and take tremendous pleasure in satisfying it. The childhood connection between romping and sexual excitement is one of the determinants of the later direction of the sexual drive of many people. All comparatively intense affective processes, even frightening ones, violate sexuality, which, by the way, can explain the pathogenic effect of such emotions. The concentration of attention on an intellectual task and general intellectual tension produce an accompanying sexual arousal in many adolescents and adults. The same pathways by which sexual dysfunction disrupts other somatic functions also serve another important function in normal health; they serve to attract the sexual instincts for purposes other than sexual, that is, to sublimate sexuality.

Chapter III: The Transformations of Puberty.
(one). The primacy of the genital areas and fore-pleasure.
With the onset of puberty there are changes designed to give the infantile sexual life its definitive and normal form. A normal sex life is ensured only by an exact convergence of the affective stream and the sensual stream, both directed towards the sexual object and the sexual target. The new sexual purpose in men is the delivery of sexual products. The most surprising of the processes of puberty has been chosen as its essence: the overt growth of the external genitalia. The stimuli can affect him from 3 directions: from the outside world by stimulating the erogenous zones, from the organic interior and from the soul life, which is a storehouse of external impressions and a receiver of internal stimuli. All three types of stimuli produce sexual arousal. Erogenous zones are used to create a certain level of pleasure by stimulating them in ways that are right for them. This pleasure then leads to an increase in tension, which in turn is responsible for generating the motor energy necessary to complete the sexual act. The penultimate stage of this act is again the appropriate stimulation of an erogenous zone by the appropriate object; and from the pleasure produced by this arousal, motor energy is derived, this time through a reflex pathway that causes the discharge of sexual substances.

Chapter III: The Transformations of Puberty.
(2). The problem of sexual arousal.
The problem of sexual arousal is discussed. We remain in complete ignorance of both the origin and nature of the sexual tension that arises concomitantly with pleasure when the erogenous zones are satisfied. A certain level of sexual tension is required for the excitability of the erogenous zones. The accumulation of sexual substances creates and maintains sexual tension; one might suppose that the pressure of these products on the walls of the vesicles containing them acts as a stimulus to a spinal center, the state of which is perceived by the higher centers and then brings to consciousness the well-known feeling of tension. Observations on castrated males appear to indicate that sexual arousal can occur to a significant degree independently of the production of sexual substances. It seems likely that special chemicals are produced in the interstitial part of the sex glands; These are then absorbed into the bloodstream and cause certain parts of the central nervous system to become charged with sexual excitement. It is concluded that substances of a special kind arise from sexual metabolism.

Chapter III: The Transformations of Puberty.
(3). The Libido Theory.
The libido theory is discussed. Libido is defined as a quantitatively variable force that could serve as a measure of the processes and transformations that take place in the realm of sexual arousal. The idea of ​​a libido set is presented and the mental representation of it is called ego libido. Their generation, increase or decrease, distribution and displacement should offer us possibilities to explain the observed psychosexual phenomena. This ego-libido, however, is easily accessible to analytic investigation only when it has been used to cathect sexual objects, that is, when it has become object-libido. It should be the task of a libido theory of neurotic and psychotic disorders to express all observed phenomena and derived processes in terms of the economy of libido. Unlike object libido, ego libido is called narcissistic libido. The narcissistic or ego libido seems to be the great reservoir from which object cathexes are sent and withdrawn; The ego's narcissistic libido cathexis is the original state realized in early childhood, which is only covered over by the later libidinal protuberances, but essentially persists behind them.

Chapter III: The Transformations of Puberty
(4). The distinction between men and women.
The distinction between males and females is discussed. It is not until puberty that the sharp distinction between male and female characters is established. From that moment onwards, this contrast affects the shaping of human life like no other. Sexual inhibitions develop earlier and with less resistance in girls than in boys. However, the autoerotic activity of the erogenous zones is the same in both sexes. The main erogenous zone in girls is on the clitoris and is therefore homologous to the male genital zone of the glans. Puberty, which produces such a great increase in libido in boys, is marked in girls by a new wave of expression that affects precisely the sexuality of the clitoris. When a woman's erogenous susceptibility to stimulation has been successfully transferred from the clitoris to the vaginal opening, it implies that she has adopted a new primary area for her subsequent sexual activity. A man keeps his lead zone unchanged from childhood.

Chapter III: The Transformations of Puberty.
(5). The discovery of an object.
The processes of puberty establish the primacy of the genital zones; and in the male, the now erectile penis persistently pushes toward the new sexual goal, penetration of a body cavity that excites his genital area. At the same time, on the psychological side, the process of finding an object that has been prepared since early childhood is completed. Throughout the latency period, children learn to develop compassion for other people who help them in their distress and meet their needs. Her love is a role model and a continuation of her childhood relationship with her mother. Children behave as if their dependency on significant others is the nature of sexual love. Fear in children is originally an expression of grief for the loved one. The barrier to incest is maintained by postponing sexual maturation until the child can respect the cultural taboo that society upholds. The sexual life of mature youth is almost exclusively limited to living out fantasies. When incestuous fantasies are overcome, detachment from parental authority is complete. The closer one gets to the deeper disturbances of psychosexual development, the clearer the importance of incestuous object choice becomes. In psychoneurotics, much or all of the object-seeking psychosexual activity remains unconscious as a result of their rejection of sexuality. Even those who have avoided an incestuous fixation of their libido are not entirely free from its influence. One of the tasks of object choice is to find the way to the opposite sex.

Continue.
Sexual development in humans begins in two phases. This seems to be one of the necessary conditions for people's ability to develop a higher civilization, but also for their tendency to neurosis. It is not uncommon for perversions and psychoneurosis to occur in the same family and to be distributed between the two sexes in such a way that the male family members are positively perverted while the females are negatively perverted, ie hysterical. This is good evidence of the essential conditions that exist between the two diseases. If an abnormal relationship between all the different dispositions persists and intensifies with maturity, the result can only be a perverted sex life. If the genital zone is weak, the combination that must take place in puberty will fail, and the stronger of the other components of sexuality will continue its activity as a perversion. If, in the course of development, some of the excessively stressed components of the arrangement are subjected to the displacement process, the relevant excitations are still generated; but psychological blocks prevent them from reaching their goal and they are diverted into numerous other channels until they find their way to express themselves as symptoms. Through sublimation, excessively strong excitations originating from certain sources of sexuality can be released and used in other areas, so that an increase in psychic capacity results from a disposition that is dangerous in itself.

1904
Freud's Psychoanalytic Procedure (1904).
Freud's psychotherapeutic approach, known as psychoanalysis, is a consequence of the cathartic method. The cathartic method required the patient to be hypnotizable and was based on the expansion of consciousness that took place under hypnosis. His goal was to eliminate pathological symptoms. The cathartic method dispensed with suggestion; Freud also gave up hypnosis and found a substitute for hypnosis in the associations of his patients. Freud insisted that patients include whatever came to mind when discussing their medical history. Freud noted that the patient's memory lapses (amnesia) appeared, which formed the determining factor of his entire theory. Asking the patient to fill in the blanks creates discomfort when the memory actually returns. From this Freud concludes that amnesia is the result of a process which he calls repression and which he sees as being caused by feelings of unpleasure. The psychic forces that caused this repression can be demonstrated in the resistance to the recovery of lost memories. The drag factor has become the cornerstone of his theory. The greater the resistance, the greater the distortion of the repressed psychic phenomena. Freud developed the art of interpretation, which aims to extract repressed thoughts from unintended ideas. The work of interpretation relates not only to the patient's ideas, but also to his dreams. The therapeutic procedure remains the same for all the different clinical pictures that can appear in hysteria and in all forms of obsessional neurosis. Qualifications required of anyone who is to be positively influenced by psychoanalysis include: periods of normal mental condition, natural intelligence, and ethical development.

1905
On Psychotherapy (1905).
On December 12, 1904, he gave a lecture on psychotherapy to the Viennese medical doctorate. Psychotherapy is not a modern treatment method. Most of the primitive and ancient medical methods must be grouped under the heading of psychotherapy. Certain diseases, particularly the psychoneuroses, are much more amenable to psychic influences than any other form of medication. The many ways and means of practicing psychotherapy that lead to recovery are good. Various thoughts on psychotherapy are presented. 1) This method is often confused with hypnotic treatment by suggestion. Between these two techniques there is the greatest possible degree of antithesis. The suggestion does not deal with the origin, strength and significance of the pathological conditions, but superimposes a suggestion which hopefully is suitable for curbing the pathogenic idea. The analysis deals with the genesis of the disease symptoms and has the function of highlighting factors during the analysis. 2) The technique of searching for the origins of a disease and eliminating its manifestations is not easy and cannot be practiced without training. 3) Analytical studies and probing do not show quick results and resistance can be uncomfortable; however, all the effort involved in psychoanalytic therapy seems worthwhile considering that it has rendered viable a large number of permanently incapacitated patients. 4) Indications or contraindications for psychoanalysis are that a patient is adequately educated and fairly reliable in character, is in normal mental condition and is under 50 years of age. old. Psychoanalysis should not be attempted when rapid elimination of dangerous symptoms is required. 5) There is no fear of harm to the patient if the treatment is carried out with understanding. 6) It is concluded that this therapy is based on the realization that unconscious ideas or the unconsciousness of certain mental processes are the direct cause of pathological symptoms. Psychoanalytic treatment can generally be understood as re-education to overcome inner resistance. Freud's final comment is to discourage the recommendation of sexual activity in psychoneurosis.

1906
My views on the role of sexuality in the etiology of neuroses (1906).
The role of sexuality in the etiology of neuroses is discussed. Originally, Freud's theory referred only to the clinical pictures summarized under the term neurasthenia, including neurasthenia proper and anxiety neurosis. With further experience it was discovered that the cause of lifelong hysterical neuroses lies in trivial early childhood sexual experiences. Various fantasies of seduction are explained as attempts to resist memories of one's own sexual activity (infantile masturbation). The importance of sexuality and infantilism is emphasized. The patient's symptoms represent his sexual activity, arising from the sources of the normal or perverse components of the sex drives. The etiology of the neuroses includes everything that can have an adverse effect on the processes serving the sexual function. The most important are the noxae that affect sexual function itself; then there are all other kinds of injuries and traumas which, through general damage to the organism, can secondarily lead to impairment of its sexual processes. The onset of the disease is the product of a sum of etiological factors, and the necessary sum of these factors can be completed from either direction.

1905
Mental (or Mental) Treatment (1905).
Mental treatment refers to treatment that begins in the psyche, treatment (be it mental or physical disorders) through measures that affect the human psyche. Chief among these measures is the use of words, and words are the essential tool of psychiatric treatment. There is a large number of patients suffering from disorders of varying degrees of severity, whose disorders and conditions require much of the skill of their physicians, but in whom no visible or observable signs of a pathological process can be detected. One group of these patients is characterized by the abundance and variety of their symptoms (which are influenced by arousal). In this case, the condition affects the entire nervous system and is called “nervousness” (neurasthenia or hysteria). The affects are often sufficient to cause diseases of the nervous system with manifest anatomical changes and also diseases of other organs. Existing disease states can be significantly influenced by violent affects. The volitional and attentional processes are also capable of exerting profound effects on somatic processes and playing an important role in promoting or preventing physical illness. The expectant state of mind sets in motion a number of mental faculties that have the greatest influence on the origin and healing (such as belief or miraculous healing) of physical illnesses. The use of hypnosis and the knowledge gained from it are discussed. Hypnosis allows the mind to increase its control over the body, and the physician can use posthypnotic suggestion to effect changes in the patient's waking state. The disadvantages of hypnosis include the damage it can cause and the patient's dependence on the doctor.
.

1905
Jokes and their relation to the unconscious (1960).
Editor's Foreword.
In the course of discussing the relationship between jokes and dreams, Freud mentions his own subjective reason for addressing the problem of jokes: the fact that Wilhelm Fliess, in the autumn of 1899, reading the proofs of The Interpretation of Dreams, lamented that dreams were too full of jokes. The episode acted as a triggering factor, prompting Freud to pay more attention to the subject; but that cannot possibly have been the origin of her interest in him. Dreams aside, there is evidence of Freud's early theoretical interest in jokes. There is a serious difficulty in translating this particular work, a terminological difficulty that runs through it as a whole. The German and English terms covering the phenomena discussed never seem to coincide. The same applies to translations into other languages, including Farsi. The unconscious is structured by language in such a way that it is central to our relationship with language.

A. Analytical part.
Introduction.
Anyone who has had an opportunity to study the nature of jokes and their place in aesthetic and psychological literature will have to agree that jokes have not received as much philosophical attention as they deserve, given their role in intellectual development . . . Life. The first impression one gets of literature is that it is not at all practical to treat jokes in any other way than in terms of the comic. A popular definition of pranks has long been the ability to find similarities between different things, i.e. hidden similarities. The criteria and characteristics of the joke include: the activity, the relation to the contents of our thoughts, the characteristic of the playful judgment, the coupling of different things, the opposing ideas, the sense in nonsense, the sequence of confusion and enlightenment, the anticipation of the Hidden and the peculiar brevity of the joke. We have no idea of ​​the connection that might exist between the individual determinants (i.e. what the brevity of a joke might have to do with its quality as a playful judgement).

A. Analytical part.
II. The Technique of the Joke.
(1 and 2). Jokes are like dreams.
The character of a joke is not in the thinking, but in the technique. Examples are given of jokes in which the idea is condensed by introducing a distinctive compound word (e.g. anecdote for anecdote and dotage) which is in itself incomprehensible but immediately understandable in its context. In related cases, the replacement is not a compound word but a slight modification (e.g. tete-a-bete for tete-a-tete). In general, the milder the mod, the better the prank. The condensation and modification that accompanies this type of wit is compared to the condensation and modification that occurs in the dreamwork.

A. Analytical part.
II. The Technique of the Joke.
(3). Condensations and substitute formations in the dream.
First of all, we want to know whether the process of condensation with substitute formation can be found in every joke and can therefore be regarded as a universal feature of joke technique. Three examples are presented in which the formation of substitutes does not take place. In each of them a name is used twice, once in its entirety and once divided into its separate syllables, which, so separated, give a different meaning. The multiple use of the same word, once as a whole and again in the syllables in which it falls, is the first case we find of a technique other than that of condensation. Several use cases, which can also be grouped under the heading of ambiguity, can easily be subclassed: 1) ambiguity cases of a name and a thing denoted by it; 2) ambiguity arising from the literal and metaphorical meaning of a word; and 3) double meaning or puns.

A. Analytical part.
II. The Technique of the Joke.
(4) and (5). Summary and puns.
The various joke techniques are summarized as follows: condensation, with formation of a compound word or with modification; the repeated use of the same material in whole and in part, in a different order, with minor changes, and using the same full and empty words; and ambiguity as name and as thing, metaphorical and literal meanings, ambiguity proper (pun), ambiguity and ambiguity with allusion. Using the same material multiple times is just a special case of condensation; the play on words is nothing other than a condensation without the formation of substitutes. In all of these techniques, a tendency towards compression or saving (economy) dominates. The largest group of jokes is influenced by the contempt with which they are viewed. This type is commonly known as puns and passes as the lowest form of verbal wit, probably because it can be done with less fuss. Puns require the least from the expressive technique, just as the pun itself requires the most. Puns simply form a subspecies of the group, culminating in the pun itself.

A. Analytical part.
II. The Technique of the Joke.
(6) and (7). puns; The absurd as a joke technique.
There are jokes whose technique defies almost every attempt to relate them to the groupings under consideration (the condensation, the multiple use of the same material or the ambiguity). In a displacement joke, the joke itself contains a train of thought in which a displacement has been achieved. The shift is part of the work that created the joke; it is not part of the work necessary to understand it. The technique of the senseless or absurd joke consists in presenting something silly and pointless, the meaning of which lies in the disclosure and demonstration of something else silly and pointless. A number of shifts and nonsensical jokes are presented and discussed.

A. Analytical part.
II. The Technique of the Joke.
(8) and (9). relationship of wit to comic; Association as a joke technique.
Revealing psychic automatisms is one of the techniques of comics, like any kind of revelation or self-betrayal. The technique of this group of jokes is to present flawed arguments. The reunion underlies what can be described as prepared repartee jokes. The answer is that the defense counteracts aggression, turns someone over or returns someone's own coin, that is, creates an unexpected unity between attack and counterattack. Union has another particularly interesting technical tool: the concatenation of things with the conjunction "and". When things are strung together in this way, it means that they are connected: you can't help but take it that way.

A. Analytical part.
II. The Technique of the Joke.
(10) and (11). contrary representation; concept jokes.
Examples are presented of jokes where the technique used is "representation by the opposite", p. Representation of ugliness by resemblance to the fairest. In some cases, this technique can be combined with displacement. A related technique is the use of hyperbole. Representation by the opposite is not limited to jokes but can be used ironically. Representation by something similar or related forms the basis of another category of jokes. This technique is often complicated by allusions. The replacement item can simply be a sound similarity, but unlike wordplay, sound similarity refers to complete sentences or phrases and not just 2 words. Another type of allusion is omission; this kind of joke is often indistinguishable from a condensation without the formation of substitutes. Indirect representation is the allusion, which is arguably the most common and easiest joke method to use, and forms the basis of most short jokes in conversation. The categories of jokes discussed so far that would fall into this category include faulty reasoning, association, and representation by the opposite.

A. Analytical part.
II. The Technique of the Joke.
(12). The analogy as a joke technique.
Analogy is a type of indirect representation used by jokes. There are remarkably good and effective examples of analogies that don't seem like jokes to us. There are also analogies that contain a striking juxtaposition, often an absurd-sounding combination, or are replaced by the analogy with something similar. A strange juxtaposition or attribution of an absurd epithet can stand on its own as a result of analogy. An analogy can itself have the character of a joke, without this impression being explained by a complication with one of the known techniques of the joke. The analogy is one of the types of indirect representation that uses the wit technique.

A. Analytical part.
3. The purposes of jokes.
(1 and 2). innocent jokes; Profanity and the Purpose of Jokes.
The purpose of the jokes is discussed. Innocent or abstract jokes (both unbiased) do not have the same meaning as trivial or insignificant jokes; they simply mean the opposite of one-sided jokes. An innocent joke can be of great substance, it can confirm something of value. We get the overall impression from the joking comments that we cannot separate the part that does the content of the thought from the part that does the work of the joke. If a joke is not a target per se (if it is not innocent), it is a hostile joke (for the purpose of aggression, satire, or defense) or a dirty joke (for the purpose of disclosure). The technical nature of the joke, whether verbal or conceptual, bears no relation to either of these purposes. A biased joke requires 3 people: in addition to the one making the joke, there must be a second who is considered the object of hostile or sexual aggression, and a third in which the joke's goal of inducing pleasure is fulfilled. When the first person sees his libido drive inhibited by a woman, he develops a hostile tendency toward that second person and calls upon the third person who originally interfered as his ally. Through the first-person obscene language, the woman is exposed to the third-person, now bribed as a listener into effortlessly satisfying her own libido. Jokes, then, allow for the gratification of instinct (whether lustful or hostile) in the face of an obstacle standing in the way. The obstacle on the way is a woman's inability to tolerate undisguised sexuality. This power, which makes it difficult or impossible for women, and to a lesser extent men, to enjoy undisguised obscenity, is called repression. In addition to the innocent jokes, in which all pleasure is somehow tied to its technique, there are sources of pleasure available to one-sided jokes.

A. Analytical part.
3. The purpose of jokes.
(3. 4. 5). Hostile, cynical and skeptical jokes.
Hostile impulses against our fellow human beings have always been subject to the same restrictions, the same progressive repression as our sexual impulses. A joke will allow us to exploit something ridiculous about our enemy that, due to obstacles, we have not been able to openly or consciously pull off; Here, too, jokes will escape restrictions and open up sources of pleasure that have become inaccessible. One-sided jokes are well suited to attacking the great, dignified, and powerful who are protected from direct disparagement by internal inhibitions and external circumstances. Among the institutions often attacked by cynical jokes, none is more important or more closely protected by oral precepts than the institution of marriage, to which most cynical jokes are directed. There is no more personal entitlement than that of sexual freedom, and at no time has civilization attempted greater repression than in the realm of sexuality. A particularly favorable occasion for partisan jokes arises when the intended rebellious criticism is directed at the subject himself or at someone with whom the subject is involved, a collective person (e.g., the subject's own nation). Jokes that attack not a person or institution but the certainty of our own knowledge are called skeptical jokes.

B. Plastic part.
IV. The pleasure mechanism and the psychogenesis of jokes. (one).
The pleasure mechanism and the psychogenesis of the joke are discussed. The pleasure in a one-sided joke arises from the satisfaction of a purpose that otherwise would not have been satisfied. Joke techniques are sources of amusement in their own right. In a number of jokes, the technique is to focus our psychic attitude on the sound of the word rather than its meaning. A second group of joke-technical methods (standardisation, sound similarity, multiple use, modification of well-known phrases, allusions to quotations) have as a common feature that something familiar is rediscovered in each of them. This is the basis for using another technical resource in jokes, reality. The third group of joke techniques, mostly conceptual jokes, consisting of errors in reasoning, displacements, absurdity, counterstatements, etc., may make a special impression at first glance and are not related to rediscovery techniques. of the familiar or the replacement of word associations with object associations. Here, however, the theory of saving or relieving mental costs is applied. The first and third of these groups, the substitution of word associations for associations of things and the use of the absurd, can be grouped as the restoration of ancient liberties and liberation from the burden of intellectual education; they are psychological relief that can be contrasted with the economy that constitutes the technique of the second group. From these 2 principles derive all the techniques of the joke, and therefore all the joys of these techniques: reduce the mental effort already there and save the mental effort that will shortly be required.

B. Plastic part.
IV. The pleasure mechanism and the psychogenesis of jokes.
(2). Purpose and function of jokes.
Before there is a joke, there is what we can call a game or a joke. Puns and thoughts, motivated by certain pleasurable effects of economics, are the first stages of wit. This game ends up bolstering a factor called Critical Ability or Appropriateness. Then a second preliminary stage of the joke begins, the joke. now it's a matter of prolonging the enjoyment of the game, but at the same time silencing the objections of the critics who would not allow the pleasant feeling to arise. The psychogenesis of wit shows that the wit's pleasure derives from pun or liberation from nonsense, and that the purpose of wit is only to protect that pleasure from being nullified by criticism. When what a joke says has substance and value, it becomes a joke. One-sided jokes use the pleasure in the joke as a forepleasure to create a new pleasure by increasing repressions and repressions.

B. Plastic part.
V. The motives of the joke - the joke as a social process.
Jokes are discussed as a social process. Although practical jokes are an excellent method of getting pleasure from mental processes, it is obvious that not everyone is equally capable of using this method. One gets the impression that the subjective determinants of joke work are often not far removed from those of neurotic illnesses. The vast majority of jokes, especially those that are constantly related to current events, circulate anonymously. The driving force behind the production of innocent jokes is often an ambitious impulse to show off one's cunning. Laughter provides the conditions under which the free discharge of a sum of psychic energy hitherto expended on clothing is permitted. Since laughter is a sign of lust, we will be inclined to associate this lust with the dissolution of the pre-existing cathexis. If you want to release some of the catectic energy capable of downloading, several conditions must be met or desirable for it to act as a stimulus: 1) you must make sure that the person is actually emitting that catectic energy; 2) it is necessary to beware that the cathetic output, when released, finds another psychic use instead of offering itself to the motor discharge; and 3) it is beneficial if the investiture one wishes to trigger in the third person first intensifies.

C. Theoretical part.
SAW. The relation of jokes to dreams and the unconscious.
The relation of jokes to dreams and the unconscious is discussed. Transformation of thinking in terms of possibility of representation, compression and displacement are the 3 great achievements that can be attributed to dreamwork. The properties and effects of jokes are linked to specific forms of expression or technical methods, among which compression, displacement and indirect representation stand out. However, the processes that lead to the same results have become known to us as peculiarities of dreamwork. Jokes arise when a preconscious thought is temporarily left to unconscious scrutiny, and the result of this is immediately caught by conscious perception. The features of jokes that can relate to their formation in the unconscious are presented: 1) the peculiar brevity of jokes; 2) shifts; 3) representation to the contrary; and 4) the use of nonsense. Dreams are mainly for avoiding trouble, jokes for pleasure; but all our mental activities converge on these 2 ends.

C. Theoretical part.
VIII. Jokes and Comic Ways. (one).
Jokes are a subtype of comics. The comic, which behaves differently socially than the joke; it involves 2 people (the first finding the comic and a second finding it) while a third person intensifies but doesn't add to the comic process. A joke is made, the comic is found. The kind of comic that comes closest to the joke is naive. The comic turns out to be an unwanted discovery from people's social relationships. It is found in man, in his movements, forms, actions and character traits, originally in all probability only in his physical traits, but later also in his mental traits or in the expression of these traits. However, nonsense and stupidity, which is so often comical, is not always perceived as comical. The comedy in another person's intellectual and emotional qualities is the result of a comparison between him and himself, even when a comparison has produced the opposite result, such as a comic movement or action. A person seems odd to us when he spends too much on his bodily functions and too little on his mental ones compared to us. There is no denying that in both cases our laughter expresses a pleasant feeling of superiority that we feel towards him.

C. Theoretical part.
VIII. Jokes and Comic Ways.
(2). The psychic location distinguishes the joke from the comic.
It is possible to produce the comic in relation to yourself to amuse others. To make fun of other people, the main means is to put them in situations where a person becomes funny due to human dependence on external events, especially social factors, without considering the personal characteristics of the individual in question. Putting someone in a really funny situation is called a practical joke. Other means of making things funny that deserve special attention and also indicate new sources of comic amusement are pantomime, caricature, parody and parody. The touch of comedy is not found in all or most jokes, and in most cases a clear distinction must be made between wit and comedy. The pleasure of the joke resides in the unconscious, while in the comic there is no justification for doing the same. Joke and comedy differ in their psychological localization: the joke is the contribution to the comic from the area of ​​the unconscious.

C. Theoretical part.
VIII. Jokes and Comic Ways.
(3) and (4). Differences between jokes and comics.
The comedy of mimicry is permeated with caricature, exaggeration of otherwise inconspicuous traits and also contains the quality of humiliation. Jokes present a double face to their listener, forcing them to take two different viewpoints about them. In the case of a nonsensical joke, one's own opinion takes it for nonsense; the other perspective enters the listener's unconscious and finds exquisite meaning in it. Every comic book theory is challenged by its critics in the sense that their definition overlooks the essence of the comic: the comic is based on a contrast between ideas. The most favorable condition for the generation of comic pleasure is a generally cheerful mood in which one tends to laugh. The expectation of the comic, the attunement to comic pleasure, has an equally favorable effect. Unfavorable conditions for the comic arise from the type of intellectual activity in which a particular person is engaged. The chance of unleashing comic pleasure also disappears when attention is focused on the very comparison from which the comic can emerge. The comic is very disturbed when the situation from which it is supposed to develop simultaneously causes a strong discharge of affect. The generation of comic pleasure can be encouraged by any other pleasurable circumstance that accompanies it, as if it were some kind of contagious effect.

C. Theoretical part.
VIII. Jokes and Comic Ways.
(5), (6), (7), (8). Funny things aren't typical of jokes; relationship between humor and jokes.
The comedy of sexuality and profanity are discussed based on the starting point of the exposition. A random exhibition strikes us as funny because we compare the ease with which we enjoyed the view to the great effort that would otherwise be required to achieve that goal. Any exhibition where we are made spectators by third parties is tantamount to the exposed person becoming the comic. The comic difference is found either through a comparison between another person and oneself, or through a comparison entirely within the other person, or through a comparison entirely within oneself. The first case involves the comedy of movement and form, mental functioning and character. The second case includes the most numerous possibilities, the comedy of the situation, the exaggeration, the imitation, the humiliation and the unmasking. The comedy of expectation, the third case, is most remote in children. The release of distressing affects is the greatest obstacle to the emergence of the comic. Humor is the easiest of the comic species to please. Complete your course in one person. The economy of pity is one of the most common sources of humorous amusement. Pleasure in wit arises from thrift at the expense of inhibition, lust for the comic from thrift at the expense of conceit (in investiture), and lust for humor from thrift at the expense of sentimentality.
'just first class skins'.

1907
Delusions and Dreams in Jensen's Gradiva (1907).
Part I. Summary of Jensen's Gradiva.
The history of Gradiva is summarized by Freud. A young archaeologist, Norbert Hanold, had discovered a relief in an antiquities museum in Rome that attracted him. He received a plaster cast of it. The sculpture showed a grown girl walking, her flowing dress lifted slightly to reveal her sandaled feet. The hero of the story's interest in this relief is the basic psychological fact of the story. As a result of the studies, he had to come to the conclusion that Gradiva's gait was undetectable in reality; and this filled him with regret and sorrow. Shortly after, he had a horrific dream in which he was in ancient Pompeii on the day of Mount Vesuvius' eruption and witnessed the destruction of the city. Gradiva disappeared and the hero went looking for her. It seemed to come to life in another person's body. Hanold met her, Zoe Bertgang, and they went together. With the triumph of love, the beautiful and precious found recognition in delirium. In his final comparison with the childhood friend unearthed from the rubble, however, Jensen presents the key to the symbolism with which the hero's delusion obscures his repressed memory.

Part II. Gradiva and the psychology of the unconscious.
In Gradiva, Jensen presented a perfectly accurate psychiatric study by which we can measure our understanding of how the mind works, a clinical case, and a healing story that may have been designed to emphasize certain fundamental theories of medical psychology. Norbert Hanold's condition is often referred to as delusional, and we have no reason to reject that label. The state of constant estrangement from the woman creates a susceptibility or predisposition to the formation of a delusion. The development of the mental disorder begins at the moment when an accidental impression produces forgotten childhood experiences that show at least traces of an erotic tinge. Norbert Hanold's memories of his childhood relationships with the girl with the graceful gait were repressed. The first manifestations of the process set in motion by Hanold when he saw the relief were fantasies that played around the figure depicted on it. Norbert Hanold's delusion was further fueled by a dream that occurred in the midst of his efforts to discover a gait like Gradiva's in the streets of his hometown. Hanold's dream was a nightmare; its content was frightening; The dreamer felt fear while sleeping and was left with painful feelings afterwards.

Part III. Relationship between dreams and delusions.
The construction of the new delusion about Gradiva's death during the destruction of Pompeii in AD 79 was not the only result of Jensen's first dream in Gradiva. Immediately afterwards, Hanold decided to start his trip to Italy. The journey was undertaken for reasons initially unaware of your subject and only later self-admitted, reasons described as unconscious. The vision of Hanold's journey as an escape from the awakening of the erotic longing for the girl he loved and who was so close to him is the only one that fits the description of his emotional states during his stay in Italy. Zoe Bertgang's appearance marks the high point of the story's suspense. This unusually intelligent girl was determined to win her childhood friend over to her husband after realizing that the young man's love for her was the driving force behind the illusion. If a patient believes so strongly in his delusion, it is not because his judgment is defective and not clear from what is wrong with the delusion. On the contrary, there is a grain of truth in every delusion, there is something in it that really deserves to be believed, and that is the source of the patient's justified conviction. Hanold's second dream concerns the replacement of an elderly gentleman by Gradiva and the introduction of a mysterious colleague.

Part IV. Treatment of delusions in Gradiva.
Supplement to the second edition (1912).
Jensen has haphazardly added a love story to his archeological fantasy. The beginnings of a change in Hanold were not only evident in the fact that he had given up his deception. At the same time, and before his delusion dissolved, an unmistakable longing for love awoke in him, which resulted in courting the girl who had freed him from his delusion. The procedure Zoe uses to cure her childhood friend's insanity corresponds to the therapeutic method introduced by Breuer and Freud, which Breuer calls cathartic and Freud calls analytic. The similarities between the Gradiva method and the analytical method of psychotherapy include: awareness of the repressed, coincidence of explanation with healing, and arousing of feelings. The dream thoughts latent in Gradiva are leftovers of the day. However, in order for a dream to develop from this, the cooperation of a (usually unconscious) wish is required; this provides the driving force behind the construction of the dream, while the residue of the day provides the material. The first was the desire to be an eyewitness to the 1979 catastrophe. The other wish was to be there when the girl he loved went to bed. Two more Jensen stories (The Red Parasol and In the Gothic House) were discussed in the supplement to the second edition. All 3 stories deal with the same topic: the development of love as a result of an intimate childhood relationship between a brother and a sister.

1907
Compulsions and Religious Practices (1907).
Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices was written in February 1907. This was Freud's introductory foray into the psychology of religion. Freud was struck by the similarity between the obsessive actions of people suffering from nervous disorders and the observances by which believers express their piety. People who perform obsessive acts or ceremonies are in the same class as those who suffer from obsessive thoughts, obsessive ideas, obsessive impulses, and the like. Neurotic ceremonies consist of small adjustments to certain everyday actions, small additions or restrictions or orders that must always be carried out in the same way or with different methods. All activities can become compulsions if they are worked out or given a rhythm with small additions. In compulsions everything has its meaning and can be interpreted. The same applies to ceremonies in the narrower sense. A ceremonial begins as a defensive or insurance measure, as a protective measure. The guilt of the obsessive-compulsive finds its counterpart in the protests of devout people who know deep down that they are miserable sinners; and the pious observances with which such persons precede every daily action seem to have the value of defensive or protective measures. Obsessional neurosis is considered the pathological counterpart to religious education. This neurosis is described as individual religiosity and religion as universal obsession.

1908
Hysterical fantasies and their relation to bisexuality (1908).
Hysterical Fantasies and Their Relation to Bisexuality consists of a discussion of the relationship between fantasies and symptoms. A common source and normal pattern for all creations of the imagination are the daydreams of youth. They occur equally often in both sexes. In girls and women they are erotic in nature; in men they can be erotic or ambitious. A closer examination of a man's daydreams shows that all his exploits and achievements are accomplished in order to please a woman and be preferred by her to other men. These fantasies are desire gratifications that stem from deprivation and longing. Daydreams are loaded with great interest. Unconscious fantasies have always been unconscious and formed in the unconscious or were once conscious fantasies, daydreams and have since been consciously forgotten and made unconscious through repression. Unconscious phantasies are the immediate psychic precursors of a series of hysterical symptoms. The following features of hysterical symptoms are present: marks, substitutes, expression of wish-fulfilment, realization of an unconscious fantasy. They serve sexual gratification, they correspond to a return to a mode of sexual gratification, they arise as a compromise between two opposing affective and instinctive impulses, they are never devoid of sexual meaning and they are expressions of an unconscious male sexual fantasy and also a female one. The bisexual nature of the hysterical symptoms confirms the view that the postulated existence of an innate bisexual disposition in man is clearly visible in the analysis of psychoneurotics.

1908
Character and Anal Eroticism (1908).
The relationship between character and anal eroticism is discussed. The people described by Freud are characterized by a regular combination of the following 3 characteristics. They are particularly neat, economical and stubborn. It took these people a comparatively long time to overcome their childhood fecal incontinence and they still suffered from isolated failures of this function in later childhood. Anal eroticism is one of the components of the sex drive, which, in the course of its development and in accordance with the education demanded by our contemporary civilization, has become useless for sexual purposes. It is therefore plausible to assume that these traits of orderliness, thrift, and stubbornness, so often evident in ex-anal-erotics, are to be regarded as the first and most enduring results of the sublimation of anal-eroticism. Freud theorizes that permanent traits are either unmodified extensions of original instincts, or sublimations of, or reaction formations against, those instincts.

1908
On children's sexual theories.
Regarding the sexual theories of children, he introduces the concepts of fertilization by mouth, birth through the anus, parental intercourse as something sadistic, and the possession of a penis by members of both sexes. The material comes from multiple sources: direct observation of what children say and do; what adult neurotics consciously remember from their childhood and talk about during psychoanalytic treatment; and the inferences and constructions and the unconscious memories translated into conscious material that result from the psychoanalysis of neurotics. All false sex theories contain a fragment of truth. Childhood opinions about nature or marriage, which are often retained in conscious memory, are of great importance for the symptoms of later neurotic illnesses.

1909
Some general observations on hysterical attacks (1909).
When a hysterical woman whose symptoms manifest themselves in seizures undergoes psychoanalysis, she soon becomes convinced that these seizures are nothing more than fantasies translated into the motor sphere, projected onto mobility, and pantomimed. A hysterical attack must be subjected to the same interpretive scrutiny as that used for nocturnal dreams. The attack becomes incomprehensible, as it simultaneously depicts several fantasies in the same material. The attack is obscured because the patient attempts to carry out the activities of the two characters in the fantasy through multiple identification. The onset of hysterical attacks follows certain regularities. Since the repressed complex consists of a libidinal investment and an ideational content, the attack can be evoked associatively, organically, in the service of the primary purpose, or in the service of secondary purposes. Examination of the childhood history of hysterical patients shows that the hysterical attack is intended to take the place of the autoerotic gratification previously practiced and then abandoned. What points the way to the motor discharge of the repressed libido in the hysterical attack is the reflex mechanism of the act of coitus, a mechanism which is present in everyone, including women, and which we see appearing when a man seduces himself. Indulgence in sexual activity.

1909
Romantically Familiar (1909).
The psychology of the neuroses teaches us that, among other factors, the most intense impulses of sexual rivalry contribute to the feeling of contempt. When a child grows up trying to break with their parents' authority, they view that authority as hostility and respond by feeling that their own affection is not fully reciprocated. A child has more hostile feelings towards his father than towards his mother. The next of the later stages in the development of the neurotic's estrangement from his parents is described as the 'family novel of the neurotic'. strange reduction: he is satisfied with glorifying the child's father, but no longer doubts his maternal origin. This second (sexual) phase of family romance is also driven by another motive absent from the first (asexual) phase. The child, having learned of sexual processes, tends to imagine erotic situations and relationships, the driving force behind which is the desire to guide his mother in situations of secret infidelity and secret love affairs. In this way the child's originally asexual fantasies rise to the level of his later knowledge. The overvaluation that characterizes a child's early years is evident in these fantasies.

The Little Hans and Rat Man Cases (1909)

1909
Analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old child.
Editor's Note (1955).
Part I. Introduction (1909).
Analysis of a phobia in a 5-year-old child describes the course of the disease and the recovery of a very young patient. The first reports from Hans come from a time when he was not even 3 years old. At the time, he was showing a rather odd keen interest in that part of his body that he used to refer to as his "widdle". At about the age of 3 1/2 he became aware of a key feature in distinguishing between animate and inanimate objects: the presence or absence of a widdler. Her thirst for knowledge seemed inextricably linked to sexual curiosity, and her curiosity was particularly directed toward her parents through her interest in the presence of lice on her mother and father. When he was three and a half years old, his mother threatened to castrate him because he masturbated. The big event in Hans' life was the birth of his little sister Hanna when he was exactly 3 1/2 years old. He noticed and commented on the smallness of her ring finger. At 3-3/4 he showed his first but not the last hint of homosexuality. When he was 4-1/4, he made it clear that undoing his panties and taking out his penis was comfortable. When Hans was four and a half years old, he finally recognized the difference between male and female genitalia.

Part II. Clinical case and analysis of little Hans.
The history of the case and the analysis of little Hans are presented. Hans, almost 5 years old, woke up crying one morning. When asked why she was crying, she told her mother that she thought she was gone. This is interpreted as a nightmare. The basic phenomenon in his condition was that his affection for his mother was greatly intensified. Hans tells a fantasy about a big giraffe and a wrinkled giraffe. This is interpreted to mean that the tall giraffe (long neck) is his father's penis and the wrinkled one is his mother's genital organ. Hans comes to his mother's bed in the morning, is stroked by her and defies his father. Hans was afraid of big animals (especially horses) because big animals have big lice. His fear, which corresponded to a repressed erotic longing, was, like all children's fears, irrelevant. After a bout with the flu, his horse phobia increased to the point that he could not be persuaded to go outside. The immediate precipitating cause of his phobia was a fall from a large and heavy horse; one of the interpretations of this impression seems to be the one emphasized by his father, namely that Hans wished at that moment that his father would fall and die in the same way. Hans wished his father to die, and then he, Hans, would take his father's place with his mother. The issue of Han's sister Hanna is discussed in relation to his view of her as being in a box (womb).

Part III. Discussion: I.
Observing the development and resolution of a phobia in a child under 5 years of age is studied. Perhaps Hans was not normal, but a degenerate neurotic; Freud, however, rejects this. Little Hans was described by his parents as a cheerful and direct child. The first trait of Hans that can be considered part of his sex life was a particular interest in his "Widulce". This interest sparked an inquiring mind in him, and he discovered that the presence or absence of a savage made it possible to distinguish between animate and inanimate objects. He assumed that all living objects resembled him and possessed this important bodily organ; Noting that it was present in the largest animals, he suspected that it was also present in both of his parents, and the evidence from his own eyes did not prevent him from confirming the fact in his newborn sister. From the very beginning of little Hans' sexual constitution, the genital area was the one that gave him the most intense pleasure among his erogenous zones. The most important influence on the course of Hans' psychosexual development was the birth of a little sister when he was 3.5 years old. This event strained his relationship with his parents and gave him some stubborn issues to think about. In her triumphant final fantasy, she summed up all her erotic desires, both those from her autoerotic phase and those related to her love object. Hans really was a little Oedipus who wanted to get his father out of the way so he could sleep with his mother. In this fantasy, he was married to his beautiful mother and had countless children to care for in his own way.

Part III. Discussion: II. The case of little Hans sheds light on the darkness of phobias.
Observing the development and resolution of a phobia in a child under 5 years of age is studied. One day when Hans was on the street, he had an anxiety attack. Hans' phobia soon no longer related to the issue of locomotion and increasingly focused on horses. In the early days of her illness, when anxiety was at its height, she expressed fear that a horse would enter her room. The onset of anxiety wasn't as sudden as it seemed. A few days earlier, the boy had awakened from an anxious dream in which his mother had disappeared. His parents explained that his anxiety was the result of masturbation and encouraged him to break the habit. Hans was not only afraid of being bitten by horses, but also of carriages, furniture vans and buses, horses that started moving, horses that looked big and heavy and horses that started moving, they ran fast . Hans himself explained the importance of this information: He feared that horses would fall and consequently built everything into his phobia that seemed to make the fall easier for him. The falling horse represented not only his dying father, but also his mother in labor. The birth of his sister made Hans wonder about the birth and the idea that his father had something to do with it. The fear associated with this phobia is explained by the suppression of Hans' aggressive tendencies.

1909
Analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old child (1909).
Part III. Discussion: III. Little Hans and early childhood education.
Addendum (1922).
Observing the development and resolution of a phobia in a child under 5 years of age is studied. Hans was not a degenerate child. On the contrary, he was physically well built and a cheerful, easy-going, active young man who could please more people than his own father. He wasn't the only child affected by the phobia at some point in their childhood. The only results of the analysis were that Hans recovered, that he was no longer afraid of horses and that he developed a fairly intimate relationship with his father. The analysis replaced the automatic and excessive process of repression with a moderate and determined control from the higher levels of mind. Freud claims that he dared to give the child a remnant of the education that his parents refused him. I would have confirmed his instinctive hunches, told him of the existence of the vagina and copulation, further reducing his unresolved remainder and ending his stream of questions. Freud was tempted to claim the importance of a type and a model for this child neurosis and to assume that the multiplicity of repression phenomena exhibited by neuroses and the abundance of their pathogenic material do not prevent them from being derived from a very limited number of processes which refer to identical complexes of ideas.

1909
Notes on a case of obsessional neurosis (1909).
Part I. Excerpts from the medical history:
(A) The start of treatment. (B) Childhood sexuality.
Extracts from a clinical case of obsessive-compulsive disorder are presented. A young college-educated man came forward to claim that he had suffered from obsessive-compulsive thoughts since childhood, but with particular intensity over the past 4 years. The main features of his disorder were fears that something might happen to two people he loved dearly, his father and a woman he admired. In addition, he was aware of compulsive urges, such as B. the urge to cut your throat with a razor; and moreover it produced prohibitions, sometimes on unimportant things. The beginning of treatment implied the patient's obligation to say whatever came to mind, even if it seemed uncomfortable, unimportant, irrelevant, or meaningless. As a result of his testimonies, Freud discovered that the patient was under the control of a component of the sex drive, the desire to look (scopophilia), thereby creating in him a constant resurgence of a very intense desire to have sex with his peers, the female sex he liked, the desire to see her naked. This wish corresponded to the later obsession. Side by side with the obsessive desire and closely related was an obsessive fear: whenever he had such a desire, he couldn't help but fear that something terrible was about to happen. Obsessional neuroses make it much clearer than hysterias that the factors which will constitute a psychoneurosis are to be found in the patient's childhood sex life and not in the present one.

Part I. Extracts from the medical history.
(C) The Great Obsessive Fear.
Extracts from a clinical case of obsessive-compulsive disorder are presented. The patient revealed his great obsessive fear that rats might pierce the anus of a lady he admired and also his father's anus. Since his father had died many years earlier, this obsessive fear was even more absurd than the first, and consequently the fear of his father was no longer acknowledged. He had ordered replacement glasses, which had been mailed to him. He felt that unless he handed his post directly back to a specific individual (Lieutenant A), the rat would really have an effect on the lady. He promised to pay the money directly to that specific person. He made this vow in a way that made actual payment very difficult. In reality, he owed the money to no one but the postman. The captain who told him he owed Lieutenant A the money made a mistake that the patient should have known was a mistake. Despite this, the patient voted for his payment due to the error. In doing so, he repressed the episode with the other captain (B) and the unsuspecting young woman at the post office. He was determined to see a doctor, and he thought that a doctor would certify that in order to regain his health, it was necessary for him to perform his particular obsessive actions.

Part I. Extracts from the medical history.
(D) Introduction to the nature of the treatment.
Excerpts from a clinical case of obsessive-compulsive disorder are presented - Nine years earlier the patient's father had died one night when the patient was away, and the son has felt guilty ever since - Freud helped him to conclude that he really wanted death . from his father The patient confessed that since the age of 7 he had been afraid that his parents might guess his thoughts and this fear lasted throughout his life. By the time he was 12, he felt that if his father died, his father would make him rich enough to marry the girl he loved. During the seventh session he said he could not believe he had ever harbored such a desire against his father. He went on to say that his illness had greatly worsened since his father's death; and Freud said he agreed with him in that he saw the pain of his father's death as the main reason for the intensity of his illness. His pain had found pathological expression in his illness. While a normal mourning period would last 1-2 years, a pathological one like this would last indefinitely.

Part I. Extracts from the medical history.
(E) Some obsessions and their explanation.
Extracts from a clinical case of obsessive-compulsive disorder are presented. Obsessions appear to have no reason or meaning, just like dreams. The wildest and most eccentric obsessions can be cleared up if examined thoroughly enough. The solution is achieved by placing the obsessions in a temporal context with the patient's experiences, ie by asking when a particular obsession first arose and under what external circumstances it is likely to recur. One of the suicidal impulses that frequently arose in the patient was explained. It was related to the absence of his beloved, because she took care of her mother. He wanted to kill his mother for denying him his wife, and suicide was the way to punish himself for those thoughts. His protectiveness can only have been a reaction, as an expression of remorse and penance, on the contrary, a hostile impulse that he must have felt towards his beloved. His obsession with counting during the storm can be interpreted as a defense against fears that someone's life was in danger.

Part I. Extracts from the medical history.
(F) The initiating cause of the disease.
Excerpts from a clinical case of obsessive-compulsive disorder are presented and the triggering cause of the disorder is discussed. The infantile condition of obsessional neurosis may be overcome, though often incompletely, by amnesia; but, on the contrary, the immediate causes of illness remain in the memory. The suppression uses a different, actually simpler, mechanism. Instead of being forgotten, the trauma is robbed of its affective cathexis, so that only its imaginary content remains in consciousness, which is completely colorless and judged to be unimportant. The difference between hysteria and obsessional neurosis lies in the psychological processes that we can reconstruct behind the phenomenon. The main consequence of his illness was a persistent inability to work, which enabled him to delay the completion of his education for years. A conflict arose in him as to whether he should remain faithful to the beloved lady despite her poverty or follow in his father's footsteps and marry the beautiful, wealthy and well-connected woman assigned to him. to the. Due to his illness, he avoided the task of solving the conflict in real life.

Part I. Extracts from the medical history.
(G) The father complex and the resolution of the rat idea.
Excerpts from a clinical case of obsessive-compulsive disorder in rats are presented. The patient was in a situation similar to what he knew or suspected his father had been in prior to his marriage; and the patient could thus identify with his father. The conflict underlying her illness was a struggle between the lingering influence of her father's desires and her own amorous preferences. Freud constructed that when the patient was a child under the age of 6, he was guilty of a sexual offense involving masturbation and severely punished by his father. This punishment put an end to his masturbation, but left a grudge against his father and established him in his role as an intruder in the patient's sexual pleasures. The patient's mother said that he was punished for biting someone. The story of punishment by the rat (a rat piercing his lover's and father's anus) provoked all his cruel, selfish and sexual impulses into repression. Punishing the rats evoked anal eroticism, which played a large role in his childhood and was kept active for many years by constant irritation with worms. In this way, rats came to mean money (rattus is the genus of rats and rate is German for payment). The relationship of some children's sexual theories to this obsession is presented.

Part II. Theoretical part.
(A) Some general characteristics of coercive structures.
Some general characteristics of coercive structures are discussed. Compulsive structures can be classified as desires, temptations, impulses, reflexes, doubts, commands, or prohibitions. During the secondary defensive struggle which the patient wages against the obsessions which have entered his consciousness, psychic structures appear that deserve a special name. It is not purely reasonable considerations that stand in the way of obsessions, but hybrids, so to speak, between the 2 ways of thinking. They accept some premises of obsession which they fight, and so while using the weapons of reason they establish themselves on the basis of pathological thinking. The patients themselves do not know the wording of their own obsessions. Obsessions have undergone a similar distortion to dream thoughts before they become the manifest content of a dream. The technique of elliptical distortion seems to be typical of obsessional neuroses.

Part II. Theoretical part.
(B) Some psychological peculiarities of obsessive-compulsive neurotics: their attitude towards reality, superstition and death.
Some psychological peculiarities of obsessive-compulsive disorder are discussed, in particular their attitude towards reality, superstition and death. The patient was very superstitious, although he was an educated and enlightened man of considerable perspicacity, and could sometimes assure Freud that he did not believe a word of all the nonsense. His superstitions were those of a cultured man and he avoided prejudices like fear of Friday or the number 13 etc. But he did believe in premonitions and prophetic dreams. He would keep meeting the same person he had inexplicably just thought of. Another spiritual need shared by OCD sufferers is the need for uncertainty or doubt in their lives. The creation of uncertainty, which is one of the objects of all psychoneurotic disorders, is one of the neurosis' methods of removing the patient from reality and isolating him from the world. In obsessional neuroses, the uncertainty of memory is fully utilized as an aid in symptom formation. The patient had a rather peculiar attitude towards the question of death. He showed deep compassion when someone died. In his mind, he constantly made fun of people to show his sincere sympathy to his grieving loved ones. In every conflict that enters their lives, they look for the death of someone they care about.

Part II. Theoretical part.
(C) The instinctual life of obsessive-compulsive neurotics and the emergence of compulsion and doubt.
The instinctive life of obsessional neurotics and the emergence of compulsion and doubt are discussed. The patient fell ill at the age of twenty when he was tempted to marry another woman instead of the one he had loved for so long, and avoided resolving this conflict by postponing all the necessary prior actions. His neurosis gave him the means to do this. If we look at a series of analyzes of obsessive-compulsive neurotics, we cannot avoid the impression that a love-hate relationship, such as we have found in our present patient, is among the most common, the most pronounced, and probably the most frequent... hence the most important feature of the obsessional neurosis. It is the doubt that leads the patient to become insecure about his protective measures and to constantly repeat them in order to dispel this insecurity. It is also this doubt that ultimately makes the patient's protective actions just as impossible as his originally inhibited decision in relation to his love. Compulsion is an attempt to compensate for doubt and to correct the unbearable inhibitions of which doubt is evidence. Through a kind of regression, preparatory acts replace the final decision, thinking replaces action, and instead of the substitute act, a thinking that precedes it asserts itself with all the force of compulsion. An obsessive or compulsive thought is one whose function is to represent an action in a regressive manner.

191O
Leonardo da Vinci and a memory of his childhood (1910).
Part I. Biographical Material.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was admired by his contemporaries as one of the greatest men of the Italian Renaissance. The idea of ​​a radiantly happy and pleasure-seeking Leonardo is perhaps only applicable to the first and longest period of the artist's life. Later, when he was forced to leave Milan until he found his final asylum in France, the spark in his temper may have died and some strange aspects of his nature may have come to the fore. The slowness with which Leonardo worked was proverbial. The slowness that was always noticeable in Leonardo's work is considered a symptom of his inhibitions and a harbinger of his later withdrawal from painting. Leonardo was known for his calm composure and avoidance of animosity and controversy. At a time when unbridled sensuality and somber asceticism fought, Leonardo embodied the cold renunciation of sexuality that one would hardly expect from an artist and performer of female beauty. When he became a master, he surrounded himself with beautiful boys and young men whom he took as students. The core of his nature and secret seems to lie in the fact that, having activated his childhood curiosity in the service of sexual interests, he managed to sublimate most of his libido into an inquiring urge.

Part II. Leonardo's childhood reminiscence.
One of Leonardo's childhood memories concerns a vulture coming down while Leonardo was lying in his cradle, opening its mouth with its tail and slapping it against his lips many times with its tail. This scene with the vulture is not Leonardo's memory, but a fantasy that he later formed and carried over into his childhood. This is often how childhood memories are made. What the imagination conceals is only a memory of suckling or being suckled at his mother's breast, a scene of human beauty which he, like so many artists, undertook to paint with his brush in the likeness of the god of his mother and son. The reminiscence was turned into a passive homosexual fantasy by the man Leonardo. The replacement of the vulture by his mother indicates that the boy became aware of his father's absence and found himself alone with his mother. The fact of Leonardo's illegitimate birth corresponds to his vulture fantasy; For that alone, you could compare him to a vulture child.

Part III. Sexual interpretation of Leonardo's childhood memories.
There is strong suspicion that Leonardo da Vinci, who fantasized about a vulture, was homosexual. In this fantasy, a mother breastfeeding her child turns into a vulture and her breast into a vulture's tail signifying a penis. He appears as a man whose sexual need and activity are greatly reduced, as if some higher aspiration had elevated him above the general animal needs of mankind. It was always emphasized that he took on only surprisingly good-looking boys and young men as students, treated them with kindness and consideration, looked after them, and when they were ill, nursed them himself. Leonardo's mother came to Milan in 1493 to visit her son; she fell ill there, Leonardo took her to the hospital and honored her with an expensive funeral after her death. A comparison with what happens in OCD might explain Leonard's account of his mother's funeral expenses. In his unconscious he was still tied to her by an erotic feeling, just as he had been in his childhood. Before a child He comes under the sway of a castration complex, at a time when he still has women to their fullest worth, he begins to display intense desire as an instinctive erotic activity. Leonardo's erotic relationship with his mother made him homosexual. The resistance that arose from the subsequent suppression of this childhood love did not allow him to set up another and more dignified monument to his diary. But what emerged from this neurotic conflict as a compromise had to take place; and so the financial statement was entered in the diary and passed on to posterity as something incomprehensible.

Part IV. The happy smile in Leonardo's paintings.
Leonardo's vulture fantasy consists of the memory of being suckled and kissed by his mother. The idea that 2 different elements are combined in the Mona Lisa's smile has resonated with several critics. Consequently, they find in the expression of the beautiful Florentine the most perfect representation of the contrasts that dominate the erotic life of women; the contrast between restraint and seduction, between the most devoted tenderness and ruthlessly demanding sensuality. Leonardo da Vinci spent 4 years painting this painting that contains the synthesis of the story of his childhood: its details are explained through the most personal impressions of Leonardo's life. In his father's house he found not only his kind stepmother, Donna Albiera, but also his grandmother, his father's mother, Monna Lucia, who was no less tender to him than grandmothers usually are. If Leonardo succeeded in reproducing the ambiguity contained in this smile, the promise of boundless tenderness and at the same time sinister threat, on Mona Lisa's face, then here too he had remained true to the content of his earliest memory. For the tenderness of this mother was fatal to him; she determined his fate and the hardships that awaited him. The ferocity of the caresses indicated by his vulture fantasy was too natural.

Part V. Impact of Leonardo's loss of father.
Among the entries in Leonardo's notebooks there is one that draws the reader's attention by the importance of the content and by a detailed formal error. The note refers to the death of Leonardo's father. The small mistake consists in repeating the time twice (at 7 o'clock), as if Leonardo had forgotten at the end of the sentence that he had already written it at the beginning. This type of repetition is called persistence and indicates affective color. The note is a case of Leonardo not suppressing his affection. The effect Leonardo's identification with his father had on his paintings was fatal. He created them and then stopped caring for them. Psychoanalysis has shown that there is a connection between the father complex and belief in God. Leonardo was accused of unbelief or apostasy from Christianity during his lifetime. The great Leonardo remained a child all his life. He continued to play as an adult, which was one of the reasons why he often seemed mysterious and incomprehensible to his contemporaries. Whenever boys feel their sexual urges, they dream of fulfilling their desires by flying. Leonardo admits that he has always felt connected to the problem of escape. Leonard's instincts to play probably waned in his middle age; but its long duration can teach us how slowly one is torn from one's infancy when one has enjoyed in one's childhood the supreme erotic bliss never to be attained again.

Part VI. Justification of the pathobiography.
Freud insists that he never viewed Leonardo da Vinci as neurotic. The aim of the work was to explain the inhibitions in Leonardo's sex life and in his artistic activity. His illegitimate birth deprived him of his father's influence until he was five years old, leaving him open to the tender seductions of a mother whose only comfort he was. A powerful wave of repression put an end to their childish excesses and set the dispositions that would manifest themselves in the puberty years. The most obvious result of the transformation was the avoidance of all gross activity; Leonardo was allowed to live in abstinence and give the impression of being an asexual person. Leonardo emerges from the darkness of Iris' childhood as an artist, painter and sculptor. It seems as if only a man who had Leonardo's childhood experiences could have painted the Mona Lisa and Saint Anne.

1910
A special way of object choice of men.
(Contributions to the Psychology of Love I) (1910).
In the course of the psychoanalytic treatment there are opportunities to collect impressions of the behavior of neurotics in love. A number of necessary preconditions are presented in order to love a particular object choice. The first of the preconditions for love is called the precondition that a third party be harmed; it decrees that the subject will never choose an unattached woman as the object of his love, but only one over which another man can claim ownership. The second premise is that a chaste woman whose reputation is immaculate never exerts an attraction that could make her an object of love, but only a woman who is sexually objectionable in one way or another. This is related to experiencing jealousy. The behavior of the lover towards the object he has chosen is also shown. In normal love, a woman's worth is measured by her sexual integrity and diminished by any approach to the quality of being like a prostitute. The fact that neurotic men see women with this quality as love objects of the highest value therefore seems a glaring departure from the norm. A fourth condition is when the relationship is compulsive and the man shows an impulse to save the woman he loves. The psychic origins of neurotic love stem from the infantile fixation of tender feelings on the mother and represent one of the consequences of this fixation. Love objects are surrogate mothers. There is a connection between the reason for saving and the parental complex, which is expressed in an impulse to save the loved one.

1918
The taboo of virginity. (Contributions to the Psychology of Love III) (1918).
For primitive peoples, defloration is an important act; but it has become the subject of a religious taboo. Instead of reserving it for the bridegroom and the girl's future spouse, custom dictates that she eschew its realization. The first attempt at an explanation is based on the abhorrence of blood among primitive peoples who regard blood as the seat of love. A second explanation suggests that primitive man is gripped by a perpetually lurking apprehension, as the psychoanalytic theory of neurosis suggests in the case of anxiety neurosis. A third explanation draws attention to the fact that the taboo on virginity is part of a larger whole that encompasses all of sex life. Wherever primitive man has erected a taboo, he fears a danger, and he cannot be said to express a general fear of women. The intention behind the defloration taboo is to withhold or spare the future husband something that cannot be separated from the first sexual act. The first sexual act mobilizes a set of impulses that are out of place in the desired female posture. The defloration not only has the civilizational consequence of permanently connecting women with men; it also inspires an archaic animosity towards him, expressed in inhibitions about erotic married life, to which we can attribute second marriages to be many times better than the first.

1910
The psychoanalytic approach to psychogenic visual disturbances (1910).
The psychoanalytic vision of psychogenic visual changes is presented. Hysterical blindness is considered a type of psychogenic visual disorder. In a hysteric, the idea of ​​being blind arises spontaneously. Hysterically predisposed patients have an innate tendency to dissociate, to breakdown of connections in their psychic field, as a result of which some unconscious processes do not continue in consciousness. The hysteric is blind, not as a result of an autosuggestive idea that he cannot see, but as a result of a dissociation between unconscious and conscious processes in seeing. The eyes perceive not only the disturbances of the outside world that are important for the preservation of life, but also the properties of the objects that lead to their being chosen as love objects, their charms. The more closely related an organ with a dual function is to one of the main shoots, the more it withdraws from the other. This principle is destined to lead to pathological consequences when the 2 basic instincts are disjoint and the ego maintains a repression of the instinct of the sexual component in question. When an organ serving the 2 drives increases its erogenous role, it is to be expected that this will not occur without changes in the excitability and innervation of the organ, manifested in dysfunction in the service of the ego. .

1910
"Wild" Psychoanalysis (1910).
A middle-aged woman called Freud for a consultation complaining of anxiety. The precipitating cause of her anxiety had been divorce from her last husband, but these conditions worsened after she consulted a young doctor and he informed her that the root of her anxiety was her lack of sexual satisfaction. The doctor's advice to the lady shows the sense in which he understands the term sex life, namely that by sexual needs is meant only the need for intercourse or similar acts that produce orgasms and ejection of sex substances. On the other hand, the concept of the sexual in psychoanalysis includes all activities of tender feelings that emanate from primitive sexual impulses. That is why we prefer to speak of psychosexuality, emphasizing that the mental factor in sex life should not be overlooked or underestimated. The fact that the doctor suggests that she solve this need for sexual satisfaction by going back to her husband, taking a lover, or masturbating leaves no room for psychoanalysis. It is a long outdated notion that the patient suffers from some form of ignorance, and that if you remove that ignorance by giving him information, he will surely get well. The pathological factor is not his ignorance per se, but the root of that ignorance in his inner resistances. The task of treatment is to combat this resistance. A psychoanalytic intervention requires a fairly long contact time with the patient. First, the patient must reach the realm of the repressed, and second, he must have established a sufficient bond (transference) with the doctor so that his affective relationship with him makes a renewed escape into neurosis impossible. From this it is concluded that "wild" analysts do more harm to the cause of psychoanalysis than to individual patients.

1911
Psychoanalytic notes on an autobiographical account of
a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides) (1911).
Part I. History of the Schreber case.
A case of paranoia is discussed. dr Schreber's first illness began in the fall of 1884, and by the end of 1885 he was completely cured. The second illness came at the end of October 1893 and rapidly worsened. The patient was very concerned about his pathological experience. He was incapable of any other impression and sat completely rigid and motionless for hours. His delusions gradually took on a mystical and religious character. There were certain people (notably his doctor, Flechsig) who he felt persecuted and vilified, and on whom he heaped insults. By 1899 the patient's condition had changed greatly and he was now considered capable of leading an independent existence. The court ruling that Dr. Schreber reproduced the freedom, summarizes the content of his delusional system in a few sentences: He believed that he had the mission to redeem the world and to give it back its lost state of happiness. However, he could only achieve this if he first transformed himself from a man into a woman. The emasculation fantasy was of a primary nature and originally independent of the redeemer motive. The idea of ​​turning into a woman was the most prominent feature and the first germ of his delusional system. He thought there was a conspiracy against him that once his illness was recognized as incurable he would be handed over to a certain person who would take his soul and then another person who would turn him into a woman and sexually abuse him would. Schreber's mixture of reverence and rebellion in his attitude toward God is much debated. One of the delusions the patient felt was that through living people's misunderstanding of God, he was the instigator of the plot against him. In Schreber's system, the two main elements of her delusion (her transformation into a woman and her preferential relationship with God) are linked in her assumption of a feminine attitude towards God. It is shown that there is a genetic relationship between these two elements.

Part II. Attempts at Interpretation.
Attempts to interpret the medical history of paranoia are presented. Schreber's case initially took the form of a paranoia, which he only began to lose when his illness turned sour. During the incubation period of his illness, between June 1893 and the following October, Schreber kept dreaming that his old nervous disorder had returned. Schreber dreamed that Flechsig committed or attempted to commit soul murder on him. This act has been compared to the efforts of the devil or demons to possess a soul. The exciting cause of the disease was the appearance in him of a female wishful fantasy (that is, a passive homosexual), which objectified the figure of his doctor. In Schreber's personality a violent resistance arose against this fantasy, and the ensuing defensive struggle took the form of a paranoia. The person he longed for now became his pursuer, and the content of his wishful fantasy became the content of his striving. The patient's struggle with Flechsig was revealed to him as a conflict with God. This is interpreted as a childish conflict with the beloved father; the details of this conflict determined the content of his delusions. In the final stage of Schreber's insanity, the infantile sexual drive won a magnificent victory; because lust became godly, and God himself (his Father) never tired of demanding it. Her father's most feared threat, castration, actually fueled her fantasy of becoming a woman.

Part III. About the mechanism of paranoia.
The distinctive character of paranoia lies in the form the symptoms take. Paranoia is a disorder in which the sexual etiology is not obvious; Rather, the surprisingly prominent features in causing paranoia, particularly in males, are social deprecations and deprecations. The real operative factor in these social injuries lies in the role played by the homosexual components of emotional life. Central to the conflict in paranoia among men is a homosexual love fantasy for a man. The main familiar forms of paranoia can all be presented as contradictions to the one sentence: "I (a man) love him (a man)" and they exhaust all possible ways in which such contradictions could be formulated. Oppose the proposal: 1) paranoia; 2) erotomania; and 3) jealousy, alcoholic delusions of jealousy, and delusions of jealousy in women. We can detect an element of megalomania in most other forms of paranoid disorder. The most striking feature of paranoia symptom formation is the process worthy of the name of projection. Denial is also related to paranoia in the following 3 phases: fixation, denial itself, and outburst. Freud concluded that the neuroses arise from a conflict between the ego and the sex drive and that the forms taken by the neuroses determine the course of libido and ego development.

postscript.
In dealing with the history of the Schreber case, Freud deliberately limited himself to a minimum of interpretations. Since he published his work on Schreber, an accidental discovery has enabled him to appreciate more adequately one of his delusions and to see the richness of his relation to mythology: the patient's peculiar relationship to the sun, explained as a symbol of the sublimated Father . When Schreber boasts that he can look at the sun unharmed and unblinded, he has rediscovered the mythological expression of his childhood relationship to the sun and reconfirmed Freud's view that the sun is a symbol of the father.

1911
Article on technology.
The management of dream interpretation in psychoanalysis (1911).
Dealing with the interpretation of dreams in psychoanalysis is presented. Those who move from dream interpretation to analytic practice will retain their interest in dream content and their tendency to interpret as fully as possible any dream reported by the patient. The range of interpretation that can be achieved in one session should be considered sufficient and not a loss if the dream content is not fully disclosed. The next day dream interpretation should not be resumed as something natural until it is found that nothing else has come to the fore in the patient's thoughts in the meantime. The interpretation of dreams should not be sought as an art in itself in analytic treatment, but should be subject to the technical rules governing the conduct of treatment as a whole. The vast majority of dreams are ahead of analysis; so that after deduction of everything already known and understood, there is still a more or less clear indication of what was previously hidden.

1912
Article on technology.
The Dynamics of Transmission (1912).
The dynamics of the transfer are discussed. Each individual has acquired his own specific method of conducting his erotic life through the combined effect of his innate disposition and the influences exerted on him in his early years. This creates what might be termed a stereotypical plaque that is repeated over and over throughout the person's life. When one's need for love is not fully satisfied by reality, he must approach every new person he meets with libidinal anticipation. It is therefore completely normal and understandable that the prepared libidinal cathexis of a partially dissatisfied person is also directed towards the figure of the doctor. The investiture will introduce the doctor to one of the psychic lines already formed by the patient. If something in the complex matter (in the matter of the complex) is suitable to be transferred to the doctor's figure, that transference is made. It is concluded that the idea of ​​transference has entered consciousness against any other possible association because it satisfies resistance. The transference always appears first in the analytic treatment as the strongest weapon of resistance, and we can conclude that the intensity and persistence of the transference is an effect and an expression of resistance. Transference to the doctor is only suitable for resistance to treatment insofar as it is a negative transference or a positive transference of repressed erotic impulses.

1912
Article on technology.
Recommendations to Physicians Practicing Psychoanalysis (1912).
Recommendations are presented to physicians practicing psychoanalysis. The first problem is the task of keeping in mind all the myriad names, dates, detailed reminiscences, and pathological products reported by each patient and not confusing them with similar material produced by other patients who were concurrent or were previously treated. The doctor must comply with the rule of equal notification of all. This is the necessary counterpart to the demand on the patient to communicate everything that occurs to him without criticism or selection. Freud cannot recommend taking full notes, shorthand, etc., during analytic sessions. Notes focus attention, block mental activity, and create an unfavorable impression. It is not good to scientifically work on a case while the treatment is still ongoing. The most successful are the cases when you proceed aimlessly. The most dangerous feeling for a psychoanalyst under the present conditions is the therapeutic ambition to use this novel and much-discussed method to achieve something that will convince other people. The doctor must be opaque to his patients and, like a mirror, must not show them anything other than what is shown to him. You should not jeopardize your own feelings. Efforts to use analytic treatment to achieve instinct sublimation are far from advisable in all cases. The patient's intellectual abilities should not be tested. Mental activity such as thinking or focusing attention does not solve any of the mysteries of neurosis. This can only be achieved by following the psychoanalytic rule.

1913
Article on technology.
At the start of treatment. (Other Recommendations on the Technique of Psychoanalysis I) (1913).
Recommendations for Psychotechnics. Baseline analyzes are presented. Longer preliminary talks before the start of the analytical treatment, pre-treatment using other methods and previous knowledge between the doctor and the patient to be analyzed have particularly disadvantageous consequences that one has to be prepared for. They result in the patient encountering the clinician with an already established transference attitude that the clinician must slowly discover rather than have the opportunity to observe the growth and development of the transference early on. We must be wary of any potential patients who wish to delay the start of their treatment. Important points at the beginning of the analysis are the provision of time and money. It doesn't matter what material you start the treatment with. But in any case, the patient must be allowed to speak and be free to choose where to begin. As long as the patient's communication and ideas are unimpeded, the issue of transference should not be brought up. In each case, it is necessary to wait until the transmission disruption has been eliminated by the successive emergence of transmission resistance.

1914
Article on technology.
Remember, repeat and elaborate. (Further recommendations on the technique of psychoanalysis II)
Remembering, repeating and working are discussed. Forgetting impressions, scenes or experiences almost always amounts to switching them off. There is a special class of experiences for which memory, as a rule, cannot be recovered. These are experiences that occurred in early childhood and were not understood then, but were later understood and interpreted. The patient does not remember anything that he has forgotten and repressed, but negotiates it out. He reproduces it not as memory but as action; he repeats it without knowing that he is repeating it. The transmission itself is just a repeat piece; Repetition is a transfer of the forgotten past not only to the doctor, but also to all other aspects of the current situation. The patient gives in to the repetition compulsion, which now replaces the memory drive, not only in his personal attitude towards the doctor, but also in all other activities and relationships that are occupying him at the moment. The main tool for containing the patient's repetition compulsion and converting it into a reason for remembering is to manage the transference. We render coercion harmless and even useful by giving it the right to assert itself in a defined field. The first step in overcoming resistances is for the analyst to discover and familiarize the patient with the resistances that the patient never recognizes. The patient must be given time to become more familiar with the resistances he has become familiar with, to work through them, to overcome them by continuing the analytic work, by challenging them. Only when resistance is at its peak can the analyst discover the repressed instinctive impulses that feed resistance. Working out the resistances can in practice be a tedious task for the subject of analysis and a test of patience for the analyst. Theoretically, elaboration can be correlated with the abreaction of the affection components choked off by repression.

1915
Article on technology.
Observations on transference love. (Other Recommendations on the Technique of Psychoanalysis III) (1915).
Observations on transference love (when a patient declares her love to the doctor) are presented. For the physician, the phenomenon is a valuable insight and a useful warning against any countertransference tendency. They must recognize that the patient's infatuation is induced by the analytic situation. The patient has 2 alternatives; You must give up psychoanalytic treatment or accept falling in love with your doctor as inevitable fate. Having fallen in love, the patient loses all understanding and interest in the treatment. This transference love is interpreted as a form of resistance. The analytic technique requires that the doctor deny the patient who longs for love the satisfaction demanded of her. The treatment should be carried out in abstinence. The analyst must hold on to transference love but treat it as something unreal, a situation to be traversed in treatment and traced back to its unconscious origins, and to help bring to light what is most hidden. in the patient's erotic life in his consciousness and therefore under his control. For the doctor, ethical reasons join technical ones that prevent him from giving his love to the patient. As much as you value love, you must value even more the opportunity to help your patient at a critical time in their life.

1912
beginning of the neurosis.
The types of occurrence of neuroses are described. The first type can be broadly described as frustration. In the second type, the subject becomes ill not because of a change in the outside world that has replaced satisfaction with frustration, but because of an internal effort. He falls ill trying to conform to reality and meet reality's demands, an attempt in which he encounters insurmountable inner difficulties. The third type refers to those people who become ill once they have passed irresponsible childhood. The essential characteristic of dispositional processes is that your libido has never left its infantile fixations; the demands of reality do not suddenly impose themselves on a fully or partially mature person, but arise from the fact of aging. The fourth type concerns people who become ill and have been healthy, who have not had any new experiences, and whose relationship with the outside world has not changed. As a result of reaching a certain stage of life and in accordance with regular biological processes, the amount of libido in his mental household has experienced an increase, which alone is enough to upset the balance of his health and create the necessary conditions for an anxiety disorder.

1913
The Theme of the Three Chests (1913).
The question of the 3 coffins from The Merchant of Venice is discussed. Portia is obliged to marry the man who chooses the right one from the 3 coffins in front of her. The 3 chests are made of gold, silver and lead. Two suitors have already left unsuccessfully: they chose gold and silver. Bassanjo, third, decides to lead; thus he wins the bride whose affection he already had before the trial of luck. Shakespeare did not invent this oracle for choosing a coffin; he took it from a story in the Gesta Romanorum in which a girl must make the same decision in order to win over the emperor's son. Here, too, the third metal, lead, is a lucky charm. The theme is man, a man's choice between 3 women. The same content is found in King Lear when the king decides to divide his kingdom among his 3 daughters during his lifetime. He disowns Cordelia and divides the kingdom between the other 2, to his own and everyone's ruin. Pastor Paris has to choose between 3 goddesses, of which he declares the third to be the most beautiful. Cinderella is the youngest daughter, preferred by the prince to his 2 older sisters. Psyche is the youngest and most beautiful of 3 sisters in the story of Apuleius. Gold and silver are considered "loud"; while lead is considered stupid. In all stories there are 3 women, of which the youngest is the best. The Twelve Brothers, a Grimm fairy tale, is about a woman who remains mute for 7 years to save her brothers. The oldest Greek mythology knew only a single Moera. She later became 3 sister goddesses. It is argued that it represents the 3 forms that the mother-figure takes throughout a man's life: the mother, the wife, and Mother Earth, who receives him after death.

1913
Disposition to obsessional neurosis. A contribution to the problem of neurosis choice (1913).
The disposition to obsessive-compulsive neurosis was read by Freud before the IV International Psychoanalytic Congress. The decision-making bases for the choice of neurosis lie in the nature of the dispositions and are independent of the pathogenic experiences. Dispositions develop inhibitions. The order in which the major forms of psychoneurosis are usually listed: hysteria, obsessive-compulsive disorder, paranoia, and schizophrenia (dementia praecox) corresponds (though not exactly) to the order of the ages at which these disorders begin. Hysterical forms of illness can already be observed in early childhood; Obsessive-compulsive neurosis usually shows its first symptoms in the second period of childhood (between 6 and 8 years of age); while the other 2 psychoneuroses appear only after puberty and in adulthood. The sexual organization, once built up, which contains the disposition to obsessional neurosis, is never completely overcome. Hate impulses and anal eroticism play an important role in the symptoms of obsessive-compulsive neurosis. Psychoanalysis stands or falls with the recognition of the instincts of the sexual component, the erogenous zones and the expansion of the concept of a sexual function that is made possible by this in relation to the narrower genital function. The contrast between male and female does not exist in the stage of pregenital object choice. Character-building processes are darker and less amenable to analysis than neurotic ones. The evolutionary predisposition to neurosis is only complete if, in addition to the libido, one also takes into account the developmental phase of the ego in which the fixation occurs. An intimate relationship remains for hysteria to the final phase of libido development, which is characterized by the primacy of the genitals and the introduction of the reproductive function.

1912
Totem and Taboo (1913).
Part I. The Horror of Incest.
The horror of incest is discussed. The Australian aborigines took it upon themselves with the most scrupulous care and painful severity to avoid incestuous intercourse. Their entire social organization seems to have served this purpose or been related to its realization. In place of all the religious and social institutions they lack, the Australians adopt the system of totemism. A totem is usually an animal, more rarely a plant, or a natural phenomenon that has a special relationship with the entire tribe. In almost all places where there are totem poles, there is also a law against people of the same totem having sexual relations with each other and consequently against their marriage. Violations of the ban will be severely punished by the entire clan. Totem-bound exogamy affects more than incest prevention in a man's mothers and sisters. It makes it impossible for a man to have sexual relations with all the women of his own clan, treating them all as blood relatives. Totemic exogamy seems to have been the means to prevent group incest. In an Australian tribe, 12 totemic clans are divided into 4 subphratries and 2 phratries. Ml divisions are exogamous. Various national prohibitions (evasive maneuvers) are discussed, such as in Melanesia where the child avoids sexual relations between a boy and his mother and sisters by leaving the house. Later, he does not meet her in public or talk about her. Similar customs prevail in New Caledonia, New Britain, Neumecklenburg, Fiji and Sumatra. The most common and severe avoidance is the one that restricts a man's sexual relations with his mother-in-law. Incestuous desires (repressed childhood incestuous desires) later become unconscious and are seen by savage peoples as imminent dangers against which the strongest defenses must be taken.

Part II. Taboo and emotional ambivalence. (one).
Taboo has a sense of something unapproachable and is mainly expressed in prohibitions and restrictions. Taboo restrictions differ from religious or moral prohibitions. Wundt described the taboo as the oldest unwritten code of human law. The source of the taboo is attributed to a special magical power inherent in humans and spirits, which they can transmit through inanimate objects. Taboos can be permanent or temporary. Behind all prohibitions there seems to be something of a theory, that they are necessary because certain people and things are charged with a dangerous force that can transform through contact with them, almost like an infection. The amount of this dangerous attribute also matters. Some people or things have more than others and the danger is actually proportional to the difference in potential of the charges. Anyone who has violated one of these prohibitions acquires the quality of being forbidden himself. The word taboo denotes anything, be it a person or a place or a thing or a temporary condition, which is the bearer or source of the mysterious attribute. According to Wundt, the true sources of the taboo lie deeper than in the interests of the privileged classes: they spring from the source of the most primitive and at the same time most enduring human instincts, in the fear of "demonic" powers. . The original feature of taboo (that a demonic power lies latent in an object, and when the object is touched it retaliates by casting a spell on the offender) remains "objectified fear". 2 ways it evolves later: worship and horror. Even according to Wundt, the distinction between holy and unclean did not exist in the primitive beginnings of the taboo; Hence the taboo is applied to both what is holy and what is impure for fear of coming into contact with it.

Part II. Taboo and emotional ambivalence.
(2). Parallel between taboo and obsessional neurosis.
Anyone who approaches the problem of taboo from the perspective of psychoanalysis will recognize that taboo phenomena are anything but unknown. The most obvious and striking correspondence between the compulsive prohibitions of neurotics and the taboos is that these prohibitions are equally unmotivated and equally enigmatic in their origin. As with the taboo, the main prohibition, the core of the neurosis, applies to touching; Hence, it is sometimes referred to as touch phobia. Obsessive prohibitions are very prone to shifting. Compulsory prohibitions mean far-reaching renunciations and restrictions in the lives of those subject to them as taboo prohibitions; However, some of them can be triggered when performing certain actions. From then on these acts must be performed: they become compulsive or compulsive acts, and there is no doubt that they have the character of expiation, penance, defenses, and purification. A constant conflict between the prohibition and the instinct to do something is called psychological fixation. The main feature of this psychological constellation is described as the subject's ambivalent attitude towards a single object or an action related to this object. The transferability of the taboo reflects the tendency of the unconscious instinct in the neurosis to constantly switch to new objects in associative ways. If the violation of a taboo can be remedied by atonement or atonement, which implies the renunciation of some possession or some freedom, this proves that obedience to the command of the taboo itself meant the renunciation of something desirable. From this it is concluded that the taboo is a primal ban imposed by force from outside, directed against the most powerful desires to which human beings are subject. The desire to rape her remains in his subconscious; those who obey the taboo have an ambivalent attitude towards what the taboo forbids.

Part II. Taboo and emotional ambivalence.
(3). The treatment of enemies.
Taboos in dealing with enemies are discussed. The killing of a human being is governed by a series of observances that are among the uses of the taboo. These observations are divided into the following 4 groups: I) the appeasement of the killed enemy; 2) restrictions on the killer; 3) acts of atonement and purification by him; and 4) certain ceremonial observances. The implication of all these observations is that the impulses they express towards an enemy are not just hostile. They are also manifestations of remorse, admiration for the enemy, and guilt at having killed them. In the accepted explanation of all customs of appeasement, restraint, atonement and purification, two principles are combined: the extension of the murdered man's taboo to everything that has come into contact with him, and the fear of the murdered man's life. Spirit. Freud's explanation emphasizes the unity of vision that derives all these observations from emotional ambivalence towards the enemy.

Part II. Taboo and emotional ambivalence.
(3). (b). The taboo of rulers.
Taboos in dealing with rulers are discussed. The attitude of primitive peoples towards their chiefs, kings and priests is determined by 2 basic principles. A ruler not only needs to be protected, he needs to be protected. One must beware of rulers, for they are vehicles of mysterious and dangerous magical power, transmitted through contact as an electrical charge, bringing death and ruin to anyone not protected by a similar charge. The need to protect the king from every possible form of danger stems from his immense importance to his subjects. The ceremonial taboo of kings is ostensibly their greatest honor and protection, when in reality it is a punishment for their exaltation, a vengeance exacted upon them by their subjects. An element of distrust can be identified among the reasons for tabooing the king. One of the most notorious instances of a holy ruler chained and paralyzed by taboo ceremonies was found in the Japanese Mikado way of life in earlier centuries. Some of the taboos placed on barbarian kings are similar to the restrictions placed on assassins. Taboos not only choose the king and elevate him above all mere mortals, but also make his existence an unbearable torment and burden, reducing him to a bondage worse than that of his subjects.

Part II. Taboo and emotional ambivalence.
(3). (C). The taboo of the dead.
(4). taboo and conscience.
The taboo about the dead is particularly virulent among most primitive peoples. It manifests itself in the consequences of dealing with the dead and in the treatment of the bereaved. The taboo on physical contact with the dead is the same for Polynesia, Melanesia and part of Africa. Its most common feature is the ban on those who have had such contact touching the food themselves, and the consequent need for them to be fed by other people. Essentially the same prohibitions apply to those who have only come into contact with the dead figuratively. One of the most confusing, but at the same time most instructive, usages related to mourning is the prohibition on pronouncing the name of the deceased, since the name is considered an integral part of a man's personality and an important possession. Obsessional neurotics behave just like savages when it comes to names. Those who use this taboo fear the presence or return of the death spirit. A beloved relative is about to turn into a demon at the moment of his death, and his survivors face nothing but hostility. Here we see the ambivalence of human emotions when a mourner bemoans the death of a loved one, knowing that he unconsciously wanted death. Unconscious hostility is projected onto the demons in the taboo of the dead. The taboo explanation also elucidates the nature and origin of consciousness: this consciousness also arose on the basis of emotional ambivalence and under the same conditions (that one of the opposing feelings involved is unconscious and is being suppressed by compulsive domination). of the other). Violation of the taboo in primitive peoples entails punishment of the one responsible for violating the taboo, while in obsessional neuroses performing the forbidden action causes punishment of a person other than the one who commits the action. What actually happens in the latter case is that the loved one's original death wish is replaced by the fear of death, creating a neurosis that compensates for an underlying counter-attitude of brutal selfishness. The neuroses are asocial structures; they strive to achieve by private means what is accomplished in society through collective effort. Taboo observances, like neurotic symptoms, have this double meaning.

Part III. Animism, magic and the omnipotence of thought.
(1). Animism
(2). Magic.
The psychoanalytic approach is that it should not be assumed that humans were inspired to create their first system of the universe out of pure speculative curiosity. The practical need to control the world around them must have played a part. Essentially, sorcery is the art of influencing spirits, treating them as one would treat men in similar circumstances: placating, healing, placating, intimidating, draining them of their power, bending them to one's will, etc. Magic, on the other hand, is something else: it basically dispenses with spirits and uses special procedures and not methods of everyday psychology. Magic must serve the most diverse purposes: it must subdue natural phenomena to man's will, it must protect the individual from his enemies and dangers, and he must give him the power to harm his enemies. One of the most common magical methods of wounding an enemy is to make an image of him out of a suitable material. Anything done to the effigy is believed to happen to the detested original. There is another method by which an enemy can be wounded. One takes possession of part of their hair or nails or other waste products or even a piece of their clothing and treats them in some hostile way. The magical principle, the technique of the animistic way of thinking, is the principle of the omnipotence of thought.

Part III. Animism, magic, omnipotence of thought.
(3). omnipotence of thought.
(4). Totemism is a system.
In OCD, the survival of the omnipotence of thought (strange and uncanny events haunting) is more evident. The primary obsessions of neurotics are entirely magical. In primitive man, the thought process is sexualized; plausibly, this attitude can be associated with narcissism and seen as an integral part of it. Only in one area of ​​our civilization, art, has the omnipotence of thinking been preserved. The first picture man made of the world, animism, was psychological. The technique of animism, magic, reveals in the clearest and most unequivocal way the intention to impose on real things the laws that govern spiritual life; the spirits need not yet play a part in this, although the spirits can be taken as objects of magical treatment. Ghosts and demons are just projections of man's own emotional impulses. He personifies his emotional occupations, populates the world with them and encounters his inner trains of thought outside of himself. Thus man's first theoretical achievement, the creation of spirits, seems to have arisen from the observance of taboos. With primitive man, superstition need not be the sole or true reason for a particular custom or practice, and it does not relieve us of the duty to search for hidden motives. Inevitably, under the rule of an animistic system, all observation and all activity must have a systematic basis, which we now call superstitious.

Part IV. The Return of Totemism to Childhood:
(one). The essence of totemism.
The return of totemism to childhood is discussed. A totem is a class of material objects which a savage regards with superstitious respect, believing that there is a special and intimate relationship between him and each member of the class. There are at least 3 types of totems: 1) the clan totem, which is common to an entire clan and passed from generation to generation through inheritance; 2) the sexual totem, common to all males or all females of a tribe, in both cases excluding the opposite sex; and 3) the individual totem, which belongs to a single individual and is not passed on to its descendants. The clan hopes for protection and care from their totem. The appearance of the totem in or around a house is often taken as an omen of death. In particularly important circumstances, the tribesman seeks to emphasize his kinship with the totem by making himself physically like it, by dressing in the skin of an animal, carving an image of the totem on his own body, etc. The Social Aspect of Totemism manifests itself mainly in a strictly enforced command and a radical restriction. Members of a totem clan are brothers and sisters and are bound to help and protect one another. The corresponding taboo restriction prohibits members of the same clan from marrying or having sexual relations with each other. If we try to penetrate the primordial nature of totemism we find that its essential characteristics are as follows: Originally all totems were animals and they were considered the ancestors of the various clans. Totems were only inherited through the female line. There was a ban on killing the totem. Members of a totemic clan were forbidden to engage in sexual relations with one another.

Part IV. The Return of Totemism in Children.
(2). The Origin of Totemism; the origin of exogamy and its relation to totemism.
The published theories on the origin of totemism are divided into 3 groups: nominalistic, sociological and psychological. Some of the explanations of totemism exclude any connection to exogamy, so the two institutions fall completely apart. There are 2 opposing viewpoints: one tries to maintain the original assumption that exogamy is an integral part of the totemic system, and the other, which denies the existence of such a connection and claims that there is a convergence between these two features of the most ancient cultures is a possibility. Most authorities agree that totemism predates exogamy. The view that explains the terror of incest as an innate instinct must be abandoned. Not only must the prohibition of incest predate any animal domestication that would have allowed humans to observe the effects of inbreeding on racial characters, but even today the harmful consequences of inbreeding are not well documented and cannot simply be observed in humans be detected .

Part IV. The return of totemism to infancy.
(3). animal phobias.
(4). festivals of sacrifice.
There are many similarities between children's and primitive man's relationships with animals. There is often a strange break in the excellent relationship between children and animals. A child will suddenly begin to fear a certain species of animal and will avoid touching or seeing an individual of that species. This is due to a shift in affect. The analysis is able to trace the associative paths along which the shift occurs, both accidental and substantively significant. The analysis also allows us to uncover the reasons for the displacement. One can say that in the phobias of these children some traits of totemism reappear, but in a negative way. If the totem animal is the father, then the 2 main orders of totemism, the 2 taboos that form its core, against killing the totem and against refraining from sexual relations with a woman of the same totem, agree in content with the 2 crimes of Oedipus, who killed his father and married his mother, and the 2 primary desires of children, whose insufficient repression or whose awakening lies at the heart of perhaps all psychoneurosis. The sacramental slaughter and communal consumption of the totem animal, the consumption of which is forbidden on all other occasions, is an important feature of totem religion.

Part IV. The return of totemism to infancy.
(5), (6). Relationship totemic meals with the Father and God.
A party is permissible, or rather obligatory, excess, a solemn violation of a prohibition. It's not that men commit excess because it's part of the nature of a party; the festive feeling comes from the freedom to do what is generally forbidden. Clan members gain sanctity by consuming the totem. Psychoanalysis has shown that the totem animal is actually a surrogate for the father; and this accords with the contradictory fact that, although it is generally forbidden to kill the animal, its death is a celebratory occasion, with the fact that it is killed and yet mourned. Psychoanalysis forces us to assume that totemism and exogamy are closely related and have a simultaneous origin. The ancient totem meal is repeated in the original form of sacrifice. The god himself is said to have been the totem animal and evolved from it into a later religious emotional state. With the passage of time the animal lost its sacred character and the sacrifice lost its connection with the totemic festival; it became a simple offering to the deity, an act of renunciation in favor of the god. We can trace through the centuries the identity of the totem meal with animal sacrifices, with anthropogenic human sacrifices, and with the Christian Eucharist, and we can see in all these rituals the effect of the crime that so deeply overwhelmed people, but they did must have been so proud. But the Christian Lord's Supper is essentially a renewed elimination of the father, a repetition of the guilty deed.

Part IV. Return of Totemism in Childhood.
(7). Oedipus complex and society.
An event like the elimination of the original father by the company of his children must leave an indelible mark on human history; and the less remembered it was, the more numerous must have been the substitutes it produced. The beginnings of religion, morality, society and art converge in the Oedipus complex. This is in complete agreement with the psychoanalytic finding that the same complex, as far as we know today, forms the core of all neuroses. It seems that the problems of social psychology should be solvable on the basis of a single concrete point: the man's relationship with his father. No one could have overlooked that the existence of a collective consciousness is taken as the basis of the position. Guilt for an act is said to have existed for many thousands of years and lingered through generations who may have been unaware of that act. Social psychology in general cannot exist without the assumption of a collective consciousness. In fact, another difficulty might arise from the psychoanalytic fields. The first moral imperatives and limitations of primitive society were explained as reactions to an act that gave the perpetrators the concept of crime. They felt remorse for the event and decided it should never happen again. That creative guilt still accompanies us.

1914
False recognition ("already said") in psychoanalytic treatment (1914).
It is not uncommon that in the course of analytic treatment, after having related something he has remembered, the patient continues to say that he has already said it, while the analyst himself is sure that this is the first time he has done so . i heard the story The explanation for this frequent occurrence seems to be that the patient really wanted to give this information, that he actually made a remark leading to it once or even several times, but this resistance then prevented him from fulfilling his purpose. , and then mistook a memory of his intention for a memory of his execution. The phenomenon exhibited by the patient in such cases deserves the name of fausse reconnaissance and is entirely analogous to what occurs in certain other cases and has been termed déjà vu. There is another type of misrecognition that often occurs at the end of a treatment. Having managed, against all odds, to force the repressed event onto the patient's acceptance and, so to speak, to rehabilitate it, the patient can say that it now seems to him as if he had known it all along. This completes the analysis work.

1914
Michelangelo's Moses (1914). Part I. Description of the Critics.
Descriptions by various critics of Michelangelo's Moses, a fragment of the gigantic tomb that the artist was commissioned to build for the powerful Pope Julius II, are presented. There is no doubt that it represents Moses holding the tablets of the Ten Commandments. Moses is shown seated; His body is forward, his head with his powerful beard looks to the left, his right foot rests on the ground and his left leg is raised so that only the toes touch the ground. Moses' facial expression is a mixture of anger, pain and contempt. Most critics describe the statue as the descent from Mount Sinai, where Moses received the tablets from God, and it is the moment he catches the people's rejoicing around the golden calf. It is unlikely that the figure Moses jumps at his feet ; but it is in sublime repose like the other figures and like the proposed statue of the Pope. Without the feelings of anger, contempt and pain it would not have been possible to depict the nature of a superman of this kind. Michelangelo did not create a historical figure, but a kind of character who embodies an inexhaustible inner strength that tames the unruly world; and it shaped not only the biblical narrative of Moses but also his own inner experiences and his impressions of both the individuality of Julius himself and the underlying sources of Savonarola's ongoing conflicts.

Part II. Freud's description.
There are certain details in two places on the Moses figure that have not only gone unnoticed, but have not even been adequately described. These are the position of his right hand and the location of the 2 Tablets of the Law. The thumb of the hand is hidden and only the index finger makes effective contact with the beard. It is pressed so deeply against the soft masses of hair that it protrudes from both the top and bottom. We have assumed that the right hand was removed from the beard at first; who then, in a moment of great emotional tension, reached to the left of the character and grabbed the beard; that he finally withdrew, taking part of the beard with him. There are some difficulties with this interpretation, since the right hand is responsible for upside down tables. The tables are upside down and practically balance on a corner. The upper rim is straight, the lower rim has a horn-like bulge closest to the viewer, and it is with this bulge that the panels touch the stone seat. To prevent the boards from touching the ground, the right hand moved back, untied the beard, part of which was accidentally thrown back, hit the top edge of the boards in time and held them near the back corner, which he now had had reached the top. Thus the peculiar compulsiveness of the whole, of the beard, of the hand, and of the leaning tables, can be ascribed to this passionate movement of the hand and its natural consequences.

Michelangelo's Moses (1914). Part III, IV and Afterword.
In his first fit of rage, Moses wanted to act, leap and get revenge, forgetting the tablets; but he has overcome temptation, and will not sit still in his icy anger and his sorrow mixed with contempt. Nor will he throw the tablets to be broken upon the stones, for by them he restrained his anger; To preserve her, he kept his passion in check. As our eyes roam, the figure reveals 3 different emotional layers. The facial features reflect the feelings that have taken over; the middle of the figure shows the traces of the suppressed movement; and the foot still maintains the posture of the projected action. The Moses of legend and tradition had a high-spirited temperament and was afflicted with fits of passion. But Michelangelo placed a different Moses on the Pope's tomb, superior to the historical or traditional Moses. In his work, Michelangelo often pushed the limits of what could be expressed artistically; and perhaps he did not quite succeed in his Moses statue when it came to making visible the passage of a violent wave of passion in the traces it left behind in the calm that followed.

1914
On Narcissism: An Introduction (1914).
Part I. Discussion of Narcissism in Different Conditions.
The term narcissism derives from clinical description and was chosen by Paul Nacke in 1899 to denote the attitude of a person treating their own body as a sex object's body is normally treated. Subsequently, psychoanalytic observers noticed that individual traits of the narcissistic attitude can be found in many people with other disorders; it seemed likely that a distribution of libido, known as narcissism, could be much more ubiquitous and claim a place in the regular course of human sexual development. A compelling reason for addressing the conception of primary and normal narcissism arose from trying to subsume what we know about dementia praecox or schizophrenia under the hypotheses of libido theory. The expansion of the libido theory is strengthened by our observations and views of the mental life of children and primitive peoples. A unit comparable to the ego cannot exist in the individual from the outset; the ego must be developed. However, the autoerotic instincts are there from the start; then something must be added to autoerotism, a new psychic action, to produce narcissism. Freud believed that we can refute Jung's claim that the libido theory failed to explain dementia praecox and is therefore ruled out for the other neuroses as well.

Part II. Narcissism in Organic Diseases, Hypochondria, and the Erotic Life.
Certain particular difficulties seem to stand in the way of a direct study of narcissism. The main approach to this will probably remain in the analysis of paraphrenia. Hypochondria, like organic diseases, manifests itself in distressing and painful bodily sensations and has the same effect as organic diseases on the distribution of the libido. The hypochondriac withdraws both interest and libido from objects in the outside world and focuses them on the organ that demands his attention. The difference between paraphrenic states and transference neuroses seems to be that in the former the libido released by frustration does not cling to phantasy objects but withdraws into the ego. Megalomania would then correspond to the psychic mastery of this ultimate libido and would thus be the counterpart to introversion through phantasies in transference neuroses; a failure of this psychic function leads to the hypochondria of paraphrenia, which is homologous to the anxiety of transference neurosis. Since paraphrenia often, if not usually, causes only a partial detachment of the libido from objects, we can distinguish 3 groups of phenomena in the clinical picture: 1) those that represent remnants of a normal state of neurosis; 2) those representing the pathological process; and 3) those representing recovery, in which the libido is reconnected to objects, in the manner of hysteria or obsessional neurosis.

Part III. Ideal of the ego, legacy of narcissism.
Psychoanalytic research has recognized the existence and importance of male protest, but unlike Adler, has viewed it as narcissistic in nature and derived from the castration complex. We have learned that libidinal impulses are subject to the vicissitudes of pathogenic repression when they come into conflict with the subject's cultural and ethical conceptions. For the self, the formation of an ideal is the condition of repression. This ideal self is the goal of the self-love that the real self enjoys in childhood. Sublimation is a process that affects the object libido and consists in directing the drive towards something other than sexual gratification. Idealization is a process involving the object; thereby that object is magnified and exalted in the subject's mind. There is a special psychic authority which ensures that the narcissistic gratification of the ego ideal is guaranteed and which constantly watches over the real ego and measures it against this ideal. Delusions of being observed present this power (observe, discover, criticize) in a regressive way and reveal the origin of the ego ideal. Self-esteem seems to be an expression of the greatness of the ego. The selfish attitude for normal and neurotic people is discussed. The relationships of self-esteem to eroticism (libidinal object cathexes) can be expressed after distinguishing between two cases: when the erotic cathexes are ego syntony or have suffered repression. The development of the ego consists of a departure from primary narcissism and an energetic attempt to regain this stage. This distancing is effected by the shifting of the libido towards an externally imposed ego ideal; and satisfaction comes from the fulfillment of that ideal. The auxiliary relationship of the sexual ideal to the ego ideal is discussed. The ego ideal binds not only a person's narcissistic libido, but also a considerable part of his homosexual libido, which thus becomes ego again.

1915
Articles on Metapsychology (1915).
The instincts and their vicissitudes (1915).
The vicissitudes of the instincts are discussed. By the pressure of an instinct we mean its motive, the force or degree of labor demand it represents. The goal of an instinct in all cases is gratification, which can only be achieved by eliminating the state of arousal at the source of the instinct. The object of an instinct is the thing on or through which the instinct can achieve its goal. The source of instinct is the somatic process that takes place in an organ or part of the body and whose stimulus is represented in mental life by an instinct. The essential characteristic of the vicissitudes to which the instincts are subjected lies in the subjection of the instinctive impulses to the influence of the three great polarities which govern mental life. Of these 3 polarities, we could call the activity-passivity polarity the biological one; that of the ego's external world as real; and finally pleasure-displeasure as economic polarity.

1915
Articles on Metapsychology (1915).
Suppression (1915).
One of the vicissitudes that an instinctive impulse can suffer is encountering resistance that seeks to render it ineffective. Under certain conditions, the impulse then goes into the state of repression. Repression is a precursor to condemnation, something between flight and condemnation; it is a concept that could not have been formulated before the time of psychoanalytic studies. Repression does not occur when the tension resulting from the lack of satisfaction of an instinctual stimulus rises to an intolerable level. It has become a condition of repression that the driving force of unpleasure has become stronger than the pleasure of gratification. Denial is not a defense mechanism that is present from the start. The essence of repression is simply pushing something away and keeping it out of consciousness. We have reason to believe that there is a primal repression, a first phase of repression, which consists in denying the psychic representative of the drive entry into consciousness. The second stage of repression, the actual repression, concerns the conscious psychic descendants of the repressed representative or conscious trains of thought which, originating elsewhere, have entered into an associative connection with him. The reason and purpose of repression is nothing other than the avoidance of unpleasure. The displacement mechanism is not consistent with the mechanisms of replacement formation. The mechanisms of repression have at least one thing in common: the deprivation of energy application.

1915
Articles on Metapsychology (1915).
The Unconscious (1915).
Chapter I. Justification of the concept of the unconscious.
We have learned from psychoanalysis that the essence of the repression process is not to end the idea that an instinct represents, but to prevent it from becoming conscious. When this happens, we say the idea is in an unconscious state. Assuming the existence of something mental that is unconscious is necessary and legitimate. It is necessary because the consciousness data has a large number of gaps; Psychic acts often take place both in the healthy and in the sick, which can only be explained by presupposing other acts, but of which the conscience does not testify. Consciousness contains little content at any given moment, so most of what we call conscious knowledge has to be in a state of latency, ie the psychic unconscious, for very considerable periods of time. Incidentally, the assumption of an unconscious is completely legitimate insofar as we do not deviate a step from our usual and generally accepted way of thinking by assuming it. In psychoanalysis we have no choice but to assert that mental processes are intrinsically unconscious and to compare their perception by the conscious mind with the perception of the outside world by the sense organs.

1915
Articles on Metapsychology (1915).
The Unconscious (1915).
Chapter Two. Different Meanings of "The Unconscious" - The Topographical Perspective.
The attribute of unconsciousness (Uws) is only one feature of the psychic and by no means sufficient to fully characterize it. The unconscious includes acts that are merely latent, temporarily unconscious, but in no way different from conscious ones. A psychic act goes through 2 phases in its state, between which a kind of examination (censorship) is inserted. First, the psychic act is unconscious and belongs to the Ubs system; if it is rejected by the censors in the test, it is not allowed to go to the second phase; then it is repressed and must remain unconscious. However, if it passes this test, it enters the second phase and henceforth belongs to the second system, the conscious system (Cs). It is not yet conscious, but it is capable of becoming conscious. In view of this ability to become conscious, we also call the PC system preconscious.

1915
Articles on Metapsychology (1915).
The Unconscious (1915).
Chapter III. unconscious emotions.
The contrast between conscious and unconscious does not apply to instincts. An instinct can never become an object of consciousness, only the idea that the instinct represents can do so. In addition, even in the unconscious, an instinct can only be represented by an image. Unless the instinct clung to an idea or manifested itself as an affective state, we could know nothing about it. The use of the terms "unconscious affect" and "unconscious emotion" refers to the vicissitudes suffered by the quantitative factor in the instinctive impulse as a result of repression. We know that three such vicissitudes are possible: either the affect, in whole or in part, remains as it is; or it turns into a qualitatively different level of affection, especially fear; or it is suppressed, that is, prevented from developing at all. In all cases where repression has succeeded in arresting the development of affects, we call these affects (which we restore when we undo the work of repression) unconscious. It is possible that affect development emanates directly from the unconscious system; in such a case the affect always has the character of anxiety, for which all the repressed affects are exchanged. However, instinct often has to wait until it has found a substitute idea in the conscious system. Affect development can then proceed from this conscious substitute, and the nature of that substitute determines the qualitative character of the affect.

1915
Articles on Metapsychology (1915).
The Unconscious (1915).
Chapter IV. Topography and dynamics of displacement.
Repression is essentially a process affecting ideas at the boundary between the unconscious system (Ucs) and the preconscious (Ucs) or conscious (Cs). The idea remains vacant, or receives a UCS cast, or retains the UCS cast it already had. Freud suggested that when we have succeeded in describing a mental process in its dynamic, topographical, and economic aspects, we should speak of a metapsychological account. In anxiety hysteria, an early stage in the process is often overlooked, and perhaps even overlooked; however, if you look closely, you can clearly see it. It consists of the appearance of fears without the subject knowing what they are afraid of. In the second phase of the anxiety hysteria, the countercathexis of the Cs system led to the formation of substitutions. The third phase repeats the work of the second on a larger scale. The Cs system now protects itself against the activation of the surrogate idea by occupying its environment, just as it had formerly protected itself against the appearance of the repressed idea by occupying the surrogate idea. Much of what we have found about anxiety hysteria also applies to the other two neuroses. In conversion hysteria, the instinctive cathexis of the repressed idea is transformed into the innervation of the symptom. In obsessional neurosis, the countercathexis of the Cs system is more prominent.

1915
Articles on Metapsychology (1915). The Unconscious (1915).
Chapter V. Of the Peculiarities of the Ucs System.
The core of the unconscious system (Ucs) consists of instinctive representatives who try to dissipate their cathexis, the desire impulses. In this system there is no negation, no doubt, no degree of certainty: all this is only introduced through the work of censorship between the UBS system and the preconscious PKS. Denial is a substitute for oppression at a higher level. In Ubs there is only more or less heavily occupied content. The properties that we can expect in the processes belonging to the UbS system are: liberation from mutual contradiction, primary process (mobility of cathexes), timelessness and substitution of psychic cathexes by external cathexes. The unconscious processes only become recognizable to us under the conditions of sleep and neurosis, when the processes of the PCK system fall back to an earlier stage through regression. The processes of the PCS system show an inhibition of the download tendency of the occupied ideas. It corresponds to the PCS system to enable communication between the different thought contents so that they can influence each other, arrange them in time and establish a censorship or several censorships.

1915
Articles on Metapsychology (1915).
The Unconscious (1915).
Chapter VI. communication between the two systems.
The unconscious system (Ubw) continues in so-called derivations; it is accessible to the impressions of life, it constantly influences the preconscious PLS system and is in turn even subject to the influences of the PLS. Among those stemming from Ub's instinctive impulses are some that blend characters of the opposite sex. On the one hand, they are highly organized, free from self-contradictions, have harnessed all the achievements of the conscious system (Cs), and would, in our judgment, differ little from the formation of that system. On the other hand, they are unconscious and unable to become conscious. A very large part of this preconscious stems from the unconscious, has the character of its derivatives, and is subject to censorship before it can become conscious. The Ucs is brought back to the limit of the PCS because of the censorship, but derivatives of the Ucs can bypass this censorship, achieve a high degree of organization and achieve a certain intensity of investiture in the PCS. However, once that intensity is overcome and an attempt is made to raise awareness, they are recognized as descendants of the Ubs and relegated to the new frontier of censorship between the Pcs and the Cs. Thus, the first of these censorships is exercised against the Ucs themselves and the second against their derivatives PCs.

1915
Articles on Metapsychology (1915).
The Unconscious (1915).
Chapter VII. Assessment of the unconscious.
An assessment of the unconscious is presented. In schizophrenia we see a series of changes in language. The patient often pays particular attention to his or her language. Some references to body organs or innervation are often emphasized in the content of these comments. In such symptoms of schizophrenia, which are comparable to the substitute formations of hysteria or obsessional neurosis, the relationship between the substitute and the repressed shows peculiarities that would surprise us in these two forms of neurosis. In schizophrenia, words undergo the same process that causes dream images to arise from latent dream thoughts; to what we have called the primary mental process. They are condensed and their occupations are completely transferred through shifting. The strange thing about substitution formation in schizophrenia is the predominance of the verbal over the factual. Conscious presentation includes the presentation of the thing plus the presentation of the associated word, while the unconscious presentation is just the presentation of the thing.

1917
Articles on Metapsychology (1915).
A metapsychological supplement to the theory of dreams (1917).
A metapsychological complement to dream theory largely resolves itself in a discussion of the effects that the dream state produces on the various systems of the mind. The study of dreams has taught us what we know about the psychic properties of the dream state. Dreams show us the dreamer only insofar as he is not asleep; however, they must at the same time reveal features of the dream itself. A dream tells us that something happened that tended to interrupt the dream and allows us to understand how that interruption was avoided. So a dream is, among other things, a projection: an externalization of an inner process. Narcissism in the dream state involves a withdrawal of cathexis from all object ideas, both the unconscious and preconscious parts of those ideas. The completion of the dream process consists in the fact that the thought content, which has been regressively transformed and edited into a wishful phantasy, becomes conscious as a sensory perception; in doing so, it undergoes a secondary revision to which every concept of perception is subject. The dream wish is hallucinated and, as a hallucination, encounters the belief in the reality of its fulfilment. Dreams are a remnant of mental activity, made possible by the fact that the narcissistic stage of the dream has not been able to fully establish itself. In the dream, the removal of the occupation affects all systems equally.

1917
Articles on Metapsychology (1915).
Mourning and Melancholy (1917).
Melancholy, the definition of which varies even in descriptive psychiatry, takes on various clinical forms whose grouping into a unit is not certain; and some of these forms suggest somatic rather than psychogenic conditions. The connection between melancholy and grief seems justified by the overall picture of the two states. Grief is a regular response to the loss of a loved one. In some people, the same influences produce melancholy instead of sadness, and we therefore suspect that they have a pathological predisposition. The characteristic psychological features of melancholia are a deeply painful depression, cessation of interest in the outside world, loss of the capacity to love, inhibition of all activity, and a reduction in selfish feelings to a degree expressed in self-esteem. accusations and self-injury and culminates in a delusional expectation of punishment. The disturbance of self-esteem is absent in mourning; but otherwise the functions are the same. Melancholy borrows some of its characteristics from mourning and others from the process of regression from narcissistic object choice to narcissism. The most notable feature of melancholy is its tendency to evolve into mania. In mania, the ego has recovered from the object loss. This means that the entire counter-cast is available, which has drawn the painful suffering of melancholy from the ego and the bondage to itself. The accumulation of cathexes, initially associated and then released when the work of melancholy is finished, making mania possible, must be associated with the regression of libido to narcissism.

1918
From the history of an infantile neurosis (1918).
Part I. Introductory Remarks on the "Wolfman". The case described by Freud is characterized by a number of peculiarities that need to be emphasized. It is about a young man whose health had deteriorated at the age of 18 after contracting gonorrhea and who, a few years later, when he began his psychoanalytic treatment, was completely disabled and totally dependent on other people. His early years were marked by a severe neurotic disorder that began as anxiety hysteria (in the form of a phobia of animals) just before the age of four, then developed into an obsessive-compulsive neurosis with religious content and lasted until the early years of his life. Years. tenth year. Freud's description and analysis of the case is limited to the aspect of the infantile neurosis, 15 years after its termination. The first years of treatment brought hardly any changes. For a long time the patient remained impregnably entrenched behind an attitude of self-satisfied apathy. His departure from a self-sufficient existence was a big problem. Freud waited until the patient was attached enough to counteract this shrinking. Freud told the patient that the treatment had to end on a fixed date; and under the pressure of that limit, his resistance and fixation on illness collapsed. It is concluded that the duration of the analysis and the amount of material to be handled do not matter compared to the resistances encountered in the course of the work and matter only to the extent that they are necessarily proportional to the resistances. .

1918
From the history of an infantile neurosis (1918).
Part II. General examination of the patient's environment and medical history.
A general examination of the patient's environment and medical history is performed. His mother suffered from abdominal illnesses and his father suffered from bouts of depression which caused his absence from home. As a result of her failing health, the patient's mother had little to do with her children. For as long as he could remember, he was cared for with tireless affection by a nurse, an uneducated old woman of peasant origin. At first he seems to have been a very good-natured child, docile and even calm, so much so that he was said to have been the girl and his elder sister the boy. But once, when his parents returned from summer vacation, they found him changed. He had become discontented, irritable and violent, taking offense at every possible opportunity and raging and then screaming like a savage. This happened in the summer when the English governess was with them. The patient's sister tormented him by always showing him a picture of a wolf that frightened him. During his childhood years he suffered an easily recognizable bout of obsessive-compulsive disorder. He said that he had been very pious for a long time. The patient's more mature years were characterized by a very unsatisfactory relationship with his father, who, after repeated depressions, could no longer hide his pathological character traits. Around the age of eight all phenomena associated with the patient's life phase, which began with his wickedness, disappeared.

1918
From the history of an infantile neurosis (1918).
Part III. Seduction and its immediate consequences.
A case of seduction and its immediate consequences are discussed. When Freud's patient was very young, his sister seduced him into sexual practices. His sister grabbed his penis and played with it. The fantasies the patient had were designed to erase the memory of an event that he later found offensive to his male self-esteem. According to these fantasies, he was not the one who played the passive role with his sister, but was aggressive, tried to see his sister naked, was rejected and punished, and became angry with the family for doing so. lore spoken. When his sister started her seductions, the boy was 3-4 years old. He kept his distance from her and his pleas soon ceased. The patient envied his father's respect for his mental ability and intellectual achievement, while, intellectually inhibited by his neurosis, he had to be content with a lower estimate. But she tried to win her nurse Nanya instead. He started playing with his penis in Nanya's presence, but Nanya disappointed him and threatened to castrate him. His sex life, which was beginning to come under the control of the genital zone, gave way to an external obstacle and was thrown by its influence into an earlier phase of pregenital organization. With the suppression of his masturbation, the boy's sex life took on a sadistic anal character. In the patient there was an intense and constant ambivalence, which manifested itself in the development of both members of the opposing component drives. After her nanya's refusal, her libidinal expectation of her dissolved and she began to view her father as a sex object. By bringing up his antics, he tried to coerce his father out of punishment and beatings and thus get from him the masochistic sexual satisfaction he desired. The signs of the patient's character change were accompanied by anxiety symptoms only after a certain event (wolf dream) had occurred.

1918
From the history of an infantile neurosis (1918).
Part IV. The Dream and the Primal Scene. Freud's patient dream is discussed in connection with the primal scene. The patient dreamed that the bedroom window was opened and he saw 6 or 7 white wolves in the walnut tree outside the window. Terrified that he would obviously be eaten, he cried out and woke up. The interpretation of this dream was a multi-year task. The only action in the dream was the opening of the window. The wolves sat very still and did not move on the branches of the tree. She always associated this dream with the memory that in those years of her childhood she was very afraid of the image of a wolf in a book of fairy tales. What was brought to life that night out of the chaos of the dreamer's unconscious memory traces was the image of a copulation between his parents, a copulation under unusual circumstances that were particularly favorable to the observation. The child's age at the time of observation was estimated to be approximately 1-1/2 years. The postures she saw her parents adopt made the man erect and the woman crouch like an animal. He thought that the pose of the wolf in The Wolf and the Seven Little Kids might have reminded him of his father's during the constructed primal scene. In any case, the picture became the starting point for new expressions of fear. His fear was a rejection of his father's desire for sexual gratification, the tendency the dream had put in his head. The form of the fear, the fear of being eaten by the wolf, was nothing other than the realization of the wish to be mated by the father, i.e. to be sexually satisfied in the same way as the mother. His final sexual goal, a passive attitude toward his father, succumbed to repression and was replaced by fear of his father in the form of a wolf phobia. His mother took on the role of the castrated wolf who let the others climb on her; his father took on the role of the wolf who climbed. He had identified in the dream with his castrated (penileless) mother and was struggling with the fact. His masculinity protested against castration (like the mother) in order to be sexually gratified by the father. It wasn't just one sexual current that left the primal scene, but a whole series of them.

1918
From the history of an infantile neurosis (1918).
Part V. Some Discussions. The scenes of early childhood, as provided by an exhaustive analysis of the neuroses, are not reproductions of real events. They are products of the imagination, intended to serve as a kind of symbolic representation of real desires and interests, and owe their existence to a regressive tendency, a distancing from the tasks of the present. The influence of childhood is noticeable at the beginning of the formation of the neurosis, since it has a decisive influence on whether and when the individual will fail to cope with the actual problems of life. The occurrence of a neurotic disorder in the fourth and fifth year of childhood proves that childhood experiences are capable of producing a neurosis. In Freud's patient, the content of the primary scene is an image of the sexual relationship between the child's parents, in a position that is particularly favorable for certain observations. Shortly before his dream, the boy was taken to flocks of sheep, where he saw large white dogs and probably observed them mating. What probably happened during the anticipatory excitement of her dream night was the transmission of her newly acquired memory image in all its details to her parents, and only in this way were the powerful emotional effects to follow possible. The transmission of the copulating dogs to their parents did not occur through verbal inference but through a search in memory for an actual scene in which the parents had been together that could be fused to the copulation situation.

1918
From the history of an infantile neurosis (1918).
Part VI. obsessional neurosis. The infantile obsessional neurosis is discussed. When the patient was 4 1/2 years old and his state of irritability and anxiety had not improved, his mother decided to introduce him to the Bible story in hopes of distracting and cheering him up. His initiation into religion put an end to the previous phase, but at the same time caused the symptoms of anxiety to be replaced by obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Until then, she had had a hard time falling asleep because she was afraid of nightmares; now, before going to bed, he had to kiss all the holy pictures in the room, say prayers, and make innumerable signs of the cross on himself and on his bed. Her childhood is divided into the following periods: 1) the earliest time before seduction at the age of 3½, when the primal scene took place; 2) the period of character change up to the nightmare (4 years); 3) the period of animal phobia until his initiation into religion (4_ years); and 4) the period of obsessive-compulsive disorder until after the age of ten. After the rejection of his nanya and the consequent suppression of the beginnings of genital activity, his sex life developed in the direction of sadism and masochism. His knowledge of church history gave him an opportunity to sublimate his prevailing masochistic attitude towards his father.

1918
From the history of an infantile neurosis (1918).
Part VII. Anal eroticism and castration complex.
Anal eroticism is discussed in connection with the castration complex. The obsessional neurosis grew on the basis of a sadistic anal constitution. Long before the analysis, the feces had the meaning of money for the patient. During his last illness, he suffered from changes in his bowel function. She found much pleasure in anal teasing and display, and this pleasure she had maintained well after the onset of her later illness. Under the influence of the primal scene, he concluded that his mother had become ill (sexual relations) as a result of what his father had done to her; and his fear of having blood in his stool, being as ill as his mother was his refusal to identify with her in this sexual scene. But the horror was also proof that she had put herself in her mother's position in the later development of the original scene and envied her relationship with her father. The organ through which his identification with women, his passive homosexual attitude towards men, could be expressed was the anal area. The disturbances in the functioning of this zone had acquired the importance of feminine tenderness impulses and maintained them during the later illness. He opposed castration and stuck to his theory of intercourse through the anus. Her father's identification with the castrator became important as a source of intense unconscious hostility towards him and a sense of guilt working against her.

1918
From the history of an infantile neurosis (1918).
Part VIII. Fresh footage from the Ur-Solution era.
In many analyses, new memories emerge at the end that have been carefully kept secret. At the beginning of the analysis, the patient told Freud a recollection of the time when his mischief was in the habit of suddenly turning into fear. He was chasing a large and beautiful butterfly, but suddenly, when the butterfly landed on a flower, he was terrified of the creature and ran away screaming. In this fearful scene, the memory of a female person had been awakened. Behind the screen was the memory of the hunted butterfly, the memory of the nanny. When the patient saw this girl scrubbing the floor, she urinated in the room and reported back with a threat of castration. Seeing the girl on the floor busy scrubbing him, kneeling with her buttocks out and her back horizontal, he found himself back in the position his mother had assumed in the scene of copulation. She became his mother to him; sexual excitement seized him; and like his father, he treated her in a manly manner. Impaired appetite, wolf phobia, and obsessive compassion made up the complete set of childhood disorders that predisposed to his post-adolescent neurotic crisis. Underlying every adult neurosis is a neurosis that arose in his childhood. The expression the patient used to summarize the problems he complained about was that the world was hidden from him by a veil. The veil was torn only in 1 situation: at the moment when, as a result of an enema, movement went through her anus, at that time she felt well again and briefly saw the world clearly. He remembered being born with a caul, so the caul was the "veil" (birth veil) that hid him from the world. The rebirth fantasy is discussed in relation to the birth veil.

1918
From the history of an infantile neurosis (1918).
Part IX. Summary and Issues.
The advantage of having a large amount of information about the patient's childhood was bought at the cost of an incoherent analysis. The first sign of the patient's sexual development is a change in his appetite. This first discernible sexual organization is termed the cannibalistic or oral phase, during which the original attachment of sexual arousal to the feeding drive still dominates the picture. The sadistic anal organization is seen as a continuation and development of the oral. The boy's anal eroticism wasn't particularly noticeable. Her seduction continued to make itself felt, maintaining the passivity of her sexual target and transforming her sadism into the masochism that was its passive counterpart. The sadistic anal organization persisted throughout the initial stages of animal phobia, only suffering from a mixture of fear phenomena. The phobia arose at the level of the genital organization and showed the relatively simple mechanism of panic hysteria. The ego protected itself by developing fear of homosexual gratification, but the repression process left its mark. It was not the fear of the father that became conscious, but of the wolf, and the fear that intervened in the development of these phobias was the fear of castration. Religion served all the purposes for which it is included in the education of the individual: it slowed down his sex education and diminished the importance of his family relationships.

1917
About the changes in drives using the example of anal eroticism (1917).
Observations during psychoanalysis led Freud to surmise that the constant coexistence of one of the three character traits of orderliness, thrift and stubbornness indicates an intensification of the anal-erotic component in the sexual constitution, and that these responses, which had been favored by his ego, had evolved over the course of his Development established through the appropriation of his anal eroticism. In the development of the male libido, the phase of genital primacy must be preceded by a pre-enteric organization in which sadism and anal eroticism play the leading roles. It seems that in products of the unconscious, such as spontaneous ideas, fantasies, and symptoms, the terms feces (money, gift), baby, and penis are poorly distinguished and easily interchangeable. If we delve deep enough into a woman's neurosis, we find the repressed desire to have a male penis. A woman's desire for a penis and a desire for a baby are basically the same. The infantile desire for a penis in women, who lack the determinants of a neurosis later in life, has as its end result the transformation into desire for a man, that is, it carries the man as an appendage of the penis. . This transformation, therefore, transforms an impulse hostile to the female sexual function into one favorable to it. Anal eroticism finds a narcissistic application in the production of defiance, which is an important ego response to other people's demands. A baby is considered feces ("Lumf"), something that is released from the body as it passes through the intestines. Kot interest is first transferred to gift interest and then to monetary interest.

1919
"A child is beaten": A contribution to the study of the origin of sexual perversions (1919).
Parts I, II and III.
People who come into analytic treatment for hysteria or obsessional neurosis often admit to having indulged in the fantasy: a child being hit. The fantasy is associated with feelings of pleasure and the patient has therefore reproduced it countless times in the past, or may still do so. At the climax of the imaginary situation, there is almost always some masturbatory gratification. This occurs voluntarily at first, but later despite the patient's efforts and with the characteristics of an obsession. The first fantasies of this kind are entertained very early in life: before school age and not after fifth or sixth grade. This fantasy is charged with a high degree of lust and culminates in an act of lustful auto-erotic gratification. Such phantasy, arising in early childhood and retained for the purpose of autoerotic gratification, can be considered a key feature of perversion. One of the components of the sexual function has developed before the others, has made itself prematurely independent, has been fixed and thus withdrawn from later developmental processes, and has thus revealed a peculiar and abnormal constitution. in the individual If the sexual component released prematurely is the sadistic one, it is to be expected that its later repression will result in a disposition to obsessional neurosis. Between the ages of 2 and 4 or 5, the innate libidinal factors awaken for the first time. The spanking fantasies appear towards the end of this period or after its completion. The analysis shows that these beating fantasies have a hysterical development that involves many changes (in terms of the fantasies' relation to the author of the fantasies and in terms of their object, content and meaning). In the first phase of girls' hit fantasies, it is never the child who has been hit that produces the fantasies, but more often a brother or sister. It's always an adult who beats the kid in all these fantasies. The first phase is fully represented in the sentence "My father beats the child". The second (and most important) phase can be expressed as "My father hits me". associated arousal, thereby providing a means of masturbatory gratification.

1919
"A child is beaten": A contribution to the study of the origin of sexual perversions (1919).
Parts IV and V
If one analyzes the early period to which the beating fantasies relate and from which they are remembered, it becomes apparent that the child is involved in the excitement of his parental complex. The girl's affection is fixed on her father. The first phase (sadism) of the hitting fantasy, in which the father hits another unloved sibling, satisfies the child's jealousy and depends on the erotic side of the child's life, but is also greatly reinforced by the child's selfish interest. The second stage phantasy of being beaten by the father is a direct expression of the girl's guilt: the phantasy has therefore become masochistic. A sense of guilt is always the main factor turning sadism into masochism; another factor is the love impulse. This phantasy is not only the punishment for the forbidden genital relation, but also the regressive substitute for that relation, and it is from this last source that the associated libidinal arousal springs, which finds its origin, the libidinal arousal. that it sticks to him, and that finds its expression in masturbatory acts. The third phase of the hitting fantasy is again sadistic. A childhood perversion can become the basis for the construction of a lifelong perversion of similar meaning, consuming the subject's entire sex life. Masochism is not the manifestation of a primary instinct, but springs from a sadism turned against itself by an object's regression to itself. People who entertain such fantasies develop a particular sensitivity and irritability towards anyone they find themselves in could include parenting. They are easily offended by such a person and thus manage to realize the imaginary situation of being beaten by their father.

1919
"A child is beaten": A contribution to the study of the origin of sexual perversions (1919).
Part VI.
The girl's hitting fantasy goes through 3 phases, of which the first and third are consciously remembered. The 2 phases of consciousness seem to be sadistic; the middle and unconscious is masochistic in nature; it consists of the child being hit by his father and carries with it a libidinal burden and a sense of guilt. In the first and third fantasies, the beaten child is different from the subject; in the intermediate phase it is the child himself; In the third phase, the children are usually beaten. The person who hits is the parent, who is later replaced by a replacement from the parent class. The unconscious phantasy of the intermediate phase has a genital meaning and develops through repression and regression from an incestuous desire to be loved by the father. There are few male cases with an infantile spanking fantasy who have no other serious injury in their sexual activities. This includes people who can be described as masochists in the sense of sexual perverts. These men are invariably placed in the role of a woman, while their masochistic attitude coincides with that of a woman. To be beaten is to be loved (in a genital sense) in the male fantasy. The boy's hitting fantasy is passive and springs from a feminine attitude towards his father. Adler proposes in his theory of male protest that each individual strives not to remain on the inferior female line of development, and strives towards the male line from which only satisfaction can be derived. Psychoanalytic theory strongly supports the idea that the drivers of repression should not be sexualized. Suppressing the original unconscious phantasy doesn't bring about much change. Repressed infantile sexuality acts as the main driving force in symptom formation; and the essential part of its content, the Oedipus complex, is the core complex of the neuroses. ABOVE

1920 bis 1939

1923
The EGO and identification
Foreword and Part I: Consciousness and the Unconscious.
The division of the psychic into conscious and unconscious is the basic requirement of psychoanalysis; and only it enables psychoanalysis to understand the equally everyday and important pathological processes of mental life and to classify them within the framework of science. Consciousness is first of all a purely descriptive term, based on perception of the most immediate and surest character. As a rule, a psychic element is unconscious for a long time. There are very powerful mental processes or ideas which, while not themselves becoming conscious, can produce in the mental life all the effects that ordinary ideas produce. The reason such ideas cannot become conscious is because they are opposed by a certain force which might otherwise become conscious, and which would then see how little they differed from other admittedly psychic elements. The state in which ideas existed before they became conscious is called repression, and we contend that the force that introduced and maintained repression is perceived as resistance during analytic work. Our concept of the unconscious comes from the theory of repression. The latent, which is only descriptively unconscious, not in the dynamic sense we call preconscious; we limit the term unconscious to the dynamically repressed unconscious. In every individual there is a coherent organization of mental processes called the ego; Consciousness is bound to this ego. The ego controls the approaches to motility, and it is from this ego that the repressions proceed, through which attempts are made to exclude certain mental tendencies not only from consciousness but also from other forms of action and activity. The resistance, which can also be found in the ego, is unconscious and behaves like what is repressed. Part of the ego can be unconscious, and this ego-related unconscious is not latent like the preconscious.

Part II: The Ego and the It.
All our knowledge is inevitably linked to consciousness. We can also only recognize the unconscious (Ubw) by making it conscious. Consciousness is the surface of the mental apparatus. All perceptions received from outside and inside are conscious (Cs). The real difference between a Ubs and a preconscious idea (thought) (Pb) is that the former is carried out on material that remains unknown, while the latter (the Pb) also deals with word presentations. These word ideas are remnants of memory; they were once perceptions, and like all memory residues, they can become conscious again. We think that mnemonic residues are contained in systems directly adjacent to the conscious perceptual system (Pcpt Cs), so the occupation of these residues can easily be extended from within to elements of the latter system. The distinction between Cs and PCs is meaningless as far as feelings are concerned; the PCs match and the tunings are Cs or Ucs. We can view an individual as an unknown and unconscious psychic identification, on the surface of which rests the ego, developed from its core, the PCPT system. Pictorially, the ego does not completely envelop the id, but only to the extent that the Pcpt system forms its surface. The ego is not cleanly separated from the id, but a part merges with it. The repressed ego also merges with the id and is simply a part of it. The ego is that part of the id that has been modified by the direct influence of the outside world through the Pcpt Cs; in a way it is an extension of superficial differentiation. The ego is above all a corporeal ego. Not only the lowest but also the highest in the ego can be unconscious.

Part III: The ego and the superego (ideal ego).
The ego ideal or superego is not firmly connected to consciousness. Transforming an erotic object choice into an ego alteration is a method by which the ego can gain control of the id. The transformation of object libido into narcissistic libido implies a surrender of sexual goals. Behind the ego ideal stands the first and most important identification of an individual, his identification with his father in his own personal history. In both sexes, it is the relative strength of male and female sexual dispositions that determines whether the outcome of the Oedipal situation will be identification with the father or with the mother. The rough overall result of the sexual phase dominated by the Oedipus complex can be seen as the formation of a precipitation in the ego, which consists of the two identifications, the father identification and the mother identification, linked in some way. The ego modification retains its special position; it contrasts with the other contents of the ego as the ego ideal or superego. The superego is not simply a holdover from the id's first object choices; it also constitutes an energetic reaction formation against these decisions. The ego ideal is the heir to the Oedipus complex. It is easy to show that the ego ideal corresponds to all that is expected of man's higher nature.

Part IV: The Two Kinds of Instincts.
Two classes of instincts are distinguished, one of which, the sexual instincts or eros, is by far the most conspicuous and accessible. It includes not only the uninhibited sex drive itself and the instinctual impulses of an inhibited or sublimated nature derived from it, but also the instinct of self-preservation. The second class of instincts is called the death drive. It seems that by uniting unicellular life forms into multicellular life forms, the death instinct of a single cell can be successfully neutralized and destructive impulses channeled out through a special organ. The sadistic component of the sex drive would be a classic example of a meaningful merging of drives, and the sadism that has become independent as a perversion would be typical of a segregation. Love is often accompanied by hate (ambivalence); In human relationships, hate is often a precursor to love. It seems plausible that the shiftable and neutral energy, which is undoubtedly active in both the ego and the id, derives from the narcissistic reservoir of the libido, the desexualized eros. This shiftable libido is placed at the service of the pleasure principle to bypass blockages and facilitate discharge. This shiftable energy can also be referred to as sublimated energy. The transformation of the erotic libido into the libido of the self implies an abandonment of sexual goals, a desexualization.

Part V: The Dependent Relations of the Self.
The ego is formed from identifications that replace the cathexis abandoned by the id. The first of these identifications, the superego, owes its special position to the ego to 2 factors: 1) it was the first identification and took place when the ego was still weak, and 2) it is the heir to the Oedipus complex. The superego is always close to the id and can act as its representative in relation to the ego. Part of the feeling of guilt usually remains unconscious because the emergence of consciousness is closely linked to the Oedipus complex, which belongs to the unconscious. Feelings of guilt express themselves differently under different conditions. The normal, conscious feeling of guilt is based on the tension between the ego and the ego ideal. The feeling of guilt is excessively conscious in obsessional neurosis and melancholia, but unconscious in hysteria. In contrast to the melancholic, the obsessional neurotic never self-destructs. The id is completely amoral; the ego strives to be moral, and the superego can be supramoral and then become as cruel as only the id can be. The ego owes service to 3 masters and is consequently threatened by 3 dangers: from the outside world, from the libido of the id and from the severity of the superego. The great importance of the feeling of guilt in neuroses makes it conceivable that in severe cases the common neurotic anxiety is intensified by the emergence of anxiety between the ego and the superego (fear of castration, fear of conscience, fear of death). The id has no way of showing love or hate to the ego.

Appendix A: the descriptive and dynamic unconscious.
Appendix B: The great reservoir of libido.
In the descriptive sense, there are 2 types of unconscious: the latent unconscious and the repressed unconscious. The unconscious in its dynamic sense includes only one thing, the repressed unconscious. The fact that the latent unconscious is only descriptively unconscious does not mean that it is the only thing that is descriptively unconscious. In this book Freud speaks of the id as "the great reservoir of the libido". This seems to contradict his reference to the ego as such a reservoir in various other writings both before and after this one. The contradiction diminishes when we consider other passages in which he indicates that the undifferentiated ego-id is the original "grand reservoir" and that after differentiation the ego becomes a reservoir for the narcissistic libido.

1923
Notes on the theory and practice of dream interpretation
Parts I-VI. There are several possibilities in terms of technical procedures in interpreting a dream: 1) a chronological procedure in which the dreamer brings up his associations with the dream elements in the order in which those elements occurred; 2) from a particular dream element, for example the most prominent part of the dream or the part with the greatest sensory intensity; 3) ask the dreamer what events of the previous day are connected in his imagination with the dream just described; and 4) letting the dreamer decide which dream associations to start with. If the resistance pressure is high, one may be able to find out what the dream is about, but not what it means. If the resistance is within moderate limits, the familiar picture of the work of interpretation appears: the dreamer's associations begin to move far away from the manifest elements, so that a large number of themes and areas of thought are touched, after which a second run out of them association series for the dream thoughts sought. The dreams below are provoked by the force of an unconscious (repressed) desire. Dreams from above correspond to thoughts or intentions from the previous day that managed to gain reinforcement during the night from what was repressed by the ego. The interpretation of a dream is divided into 2 phases: the phase in which it is translated and the phase in which it is judged or evaluated. The second phase must not interfere with the work of the first phase. Determining the value of a correctly translated dream is difficult and all other clues, including those of waking life, must be considered.

1923
Notes on the theory and practice of dream interpretation
Parts VII and VIII. The question of the value of dreams is closely connected with the other question of their susceptibility to the influence of medical suggestion. That the manifest dream content is influenced by the analytic treatment needs no proof. The latent thoughts of the dream must be gained through interpretation and can be influenced or suggested by the analyst. Some of these latent dream thoughts correspond to preconscious thought formations, thought formations with which the dreamer could certainly have reacted to the doctor's observations. You are fully capable of being conscious. The actual mechanism of dream formation, the dream work in the narrower sense of the word, is never influenced. Every true dream contains traces of the suppressed desires to which it owes the possibility of its origin. With these, and with material relating to scenes from the dreamer's past, it is often difficult to prove that they are not the result of suggestion; but the way the fragments fit together like an intricate jigsaw puzzle eventually convinces us that this is not the case. It may well be that dreams during psychoanalysis bring the repressed to light more than dreams outside of this situation. But it cannot be proved, since the two situations are not comparable: the use of dreams in analysis is a bit far from its original purpose. Positive transference supports the repetition compulsion.

1923
Notes on the theory and practice of dream interpretation
Part IX. The dreams that occur in traumatic neurosis are the only real exceptions, and the punishment dreams are the only seeming exceptions to the rule that dreams are directed at the fulfillment of desires. In the last class of dreams we encounter the curious fact that nothing pertaining to the latent dream-thoughts is actually incorporated into the manifest dream-content. Instead, something completely different occurs, which must be described as reaction formation against the dream thoughts, rejection and complete contradiction to them. This is due to the ego's ability to act critically, which is temporarily restored even during sleep, and which replaces the objectionable desire of the dream with a punitive dream. Astonishment is sometimes expressed that the dreamer's ego can appear two or more times in the manifest dream, once disguised as itself and once again disguised behind the figures of other people. In the course of dream construction, the secondary revision has evidently attempted to erase that multiplicity of the self which does not fit into any possible stage situation, but which is restored through the work of interpretation. The separation of the ego from an observing, critical and punishing instance (an ego ideal) must be taken into account in dream interpretation and often explains the multiple occurrences of the ego in the same dream.

1925
Some additional notes on the interpretation of dreams as a whole
(B). Moral responsibility for the content of dreams.
The moral responsibility for the content of dreams is discussed. The manifest content is a deception, a facade. When one speaks of the dream content, one can only refer to the content of the preconscious thoughts and the repressed desire impulse, which come to light behind the dream facade through the work of interpretation. Our interest in the genesis of overtly immoral dreams is greatly reduced when we find in analysis that most dreams reveal themselves as the realization of immoral, egoistic, sadistic, perverse, or incestuous desires. Dreams do not always offer immoral wish-fulfilment, but often strong reactions in the form of punitive dreams. In other words, not only can dream censorship manifest itself in distortion and the creation of fear, but it can also completely erase the immoral subject and replace it with something else that serves expiation, while allowing us to see what is behind it. One must take responsibility for the bad impulses of dreams. Humanity's ethical narcissism should be content with recognizing that the fact of dream distortion and the existence of nightmares and dreams of punishment provide as clear evidence of their moral nature as does dream interpretation of the existence and strength of dreams. his evil nature.

1925
Some additional notes on the interpretation of dreams as a whole
(C). The hidden meaning of dreams
The hidden meaning of dreams is discussed. There seem to be two categories of dreams that qualify as occult phenomena: prophetic dreams and telepathic dreams. From Freud's point of view, prophetic dreams have no validity. Telepathy is not a dream problem: our judgment of whether or not it exists need not be based on an examination of telepathic dreams. Freud believes there may be some truth to the phenomenon of telepathy. He mentions a class of material free of otherwise reasonable doubt: unfulfilled prophecies made by professional diviners. An example is given where a fortune teller predicted that a woman aged 32 would give birth to 2 children. The woman had no children, but in the analysis at the age of 43 it became clear that her dominant unconscious desire at the time of the prophecy was to have 2 children before the age of 32, as her mother had done, and thus hers Desire for own children to be fulfilled Father who puts himself in his mother's place. Freud concluded that the diviner's strongest unconscious desire had manifested itself by being projected directly onto him while his attention was distracted from the performances he was undergoing. If things like telepathic messages exist, the possibility cannot be ruled out that they could reach someone in their sleep and arrive at their knowledge in a dream.

1924
neuroses and psychoses
Neurosis and psychosis are discussed. Neurosis is the result of a conflict between the ego and its id, while psychosis is the analogous result of a similar disturbance in the relations between the ego and the outside world. All analyzes show that the transference neuroses arise from the ego's refusal to accept a powerful drive impulse in the id or to help it find a motor outlet, or from the ego's prohibition to direct this impulse from the object to the it aims. In such a case the ego defends itself against the instinctive impulse through the mechanism of repression. The repressed material fights against this fate and creates a substitute idea, the symptom. The ego sees its unity threatened and damaged by this intruder and continues to fight against the symptom, just as it fought against the original instinctual impulse. The common etiology at the onset of psychoneurosis and psychosis is always the same. It is a frustration, a failure to fulfill one of those childhood desires that remain forever undefeated and that are so ingrained in our phylogenetic organization. The pathogenic effect depends on whether the ego remains faithful to its dependence on the outside world and attempts to silence the id, as in transference neuroses, or whether it allows itself to be overwhelmed by the id and thus snatched away from reality, as in neuroses . Transfer. Psychosis. A third group of diseases, the narcissistic neuroses, are characterized by a conflict between the ego and the superego. The thesis that neuroses and psychoses arise in the conflicts of the ego with its various instances needs to be supplemented. One would like to know under what circumstances and with what means the ego can succeed in getting out of such conflicts, which certainly always exist, without becoming ill. This is a new area of ​​research in which economic considerations and the ego's ability to avoid fracture through deformation will be two important factors.

1924
The loss of reality in neurosis and psychosis
The loss of reality in neurosis and psychosis is discussed. In a neurosis the ego, in its dependence on reality, represses a part of it, while in a psychosis the same ego withdraws from a piece of reality in the service of the id. The decisive factor for a neurosis would be the preponderance of the influence of reality, for a psychosis the preponderance of the id. In a psychosis there would inevitably be a loss of reality, while in a neurosis this loss would seem to be avoided. Any neurosis in some way disrupts the patient's relationship with reality and serves as a means of escaping reality. The neurosis consists of the processes that compensate for the damaged part of the id. The neurosis is characterized as the result of a failed repression. When a psychosis occurs, something analogous to the process of a neurosis takes place, though of course between different agents of the mind. In the neurosis, a piece of reality is avoided by a kind of escape, in the psychosis it is transformed. In psychosis, the initial fugue is followed by an active remodeling phase; in neurosis, initial obedience is followed by a delayed attempt to escape. Neurosis does not deny reality, it just ignores it; Psychosis denies it and tries to replace it. In the psychosis, the transformation of reality takes place on the traces of memory and the ideas and judgments previously derived from reality and is constantly enriched with new perceptions. This task of creating perceptions that correspond to the new reality is accomplished through hallucination. It is probable that in the psychosis the rejected part of reality constantly forces itself on, just as the repressed instinct in the neurosis does. The distinctions between neuroses and psychoses result from the topographical difference in the initial situation of the pathogenic conflict, whether in it the ego has yielded to its loyalty to the real world or its dependence on it.

1925
A note on 'Mystic Notepad'
The Mystic Writing Block is a dark brown resin or wax slab on which a thin transparent sheet is placed, the top of which is firmly bonded to the slab. The transparent film contains 2 layers that can be separated from each other except for the top end. The top layer is a transparent piece of celluloid. It is written with a sharp pen on the celluloid portion of the cover sheet that rests on the wax slab. If you want to destroy what you have written, all you have to do is lift the double-cover sheet off the wax plate with a slight tug. If, while writing on the Mystic Pad, the celluloid is gently lifted from the wax paper, the writing can be seen on the surface of the wax paper. The pad not only provides a responsive surface that can be used over and over again, but also permanent traces of what was written. The "mystical notebook" is used as a concrete presentation of Freud's views on the workings of the mind's perceptual apparatus. The unusual ability of the mental apparatus to contain an unlimited capacity for receiving new perceptions and yet to establish lasting memory traces is divided into 2 different systems: A conscious perception system Pcpt. Cs.), which picks up perceptions but keeps no lasting traces of them, while lasting traces of the excitations received are preserved in "mnemonics" lying behind the perceptual system. The perceptual apparatus consists of 2 layers, an outer protective shield against stimuli whose task is to reduce the strength of incoming stimuli and an underlying surface which receives the stimuli, namely the Pcpt Cs. The pad solves the problem of combining the 2 functions (permanent and temporary storage) by splitting them into 2 separate but interconnected components or systems. The layer receiving the stimuli (Pcpt Cs.) does not form permanent imprints; the foundations of memory arise in other related systems.

1925
refusal
The rejection is controversial. The content of a repressed image or idea can come to consciousness on condition that it be denied. Denial is a way of becoming aware of what is being repressed. Confirming or denying the content of thoughts is the task of the intellectual judgment function. The function of judgment is mainly related to two types of decisions. Confirms or denies possession of a specific property by a thing; and claims or denies that a presentation exists in reality. Judgment is the intellectual action that decides the choice of motor action that puts an end to procrastination through thought and leads from thought to action. Judgment is a convenient continuation of the original process by which the ego, according to the pleasure principle, took things in and expelled things from itself.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Part I. Inhibitions reflect limitations in ego functions.
The 2 concepts of inhibitions and symptoms are not on the same level. The inhibition need not necessarily have a pathological implication. A symptom actually denotes the presence of a pathological process. Sexual functioning is subject to a variety of disorders that can be classified as simple inhibitions. Sexual dysfunction occurs in a variety of ways: 1) libido can simply shut down; 2) the function can be performed worse; 3) it may be restricted by conditions or modified by redirection for other purposes; 4) can be prevented by security measures; 5) if it cannot be prevented from starting, it can be immediately interrupted by the onset of fear; and 6) if it is done, there may be protests and attempts to undo what has happened. Nutritional function is most commonly disrupted by a lack of desire to eat caused by a loss of libido. In some neurotic conditions, locomotion is inhibited by a lack of inclination to walk or a weakness in walking. In work inhibition, the subject experiences a decrease in enjoyment of work or becomes less able to do it well. Inhibitions are described as resistance to ego functions, imposed as a precaution or caused by a lack of energy. Inhibitions are performed by the ego to avoid conflict with the id or the superego.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Part II. The symptoms reflect intersystemic conflicts.
A symptom is a sign and a substitute for an instinctual gratification that has remained in abeyance; it is a consequence of the process of repression. The repression comes from the ego when it refuses to join an instinctual cathexis that has arisen in the id. The ego is able, by repression, to prevent the idea that is the carrier of the reprehensible impulse from becoming conscious. The ego is the seat of fear. In order for the ego to counteract an instinctive process in the id, it only needs to give a signal of unpleasure in order to make use of the pleasure principle for id control. The ego also gains its influence through its intimate connection with the phenomenon of consciousness. The ego avoids internal and external dangers alike. Just as the ego controls the course of action towards the outside world, it also controls access to consciousness. In repression it exerts its power in both directions, acting on the instinctual impulse itself on the one hand and on the psychic representative of that impulse on the other. Most regressions dealt with in therapeutic work are cases of back pressure. A symptom arises from a drive impulse negatively influenced by regression. The impulse finds its expression through a substitute that is seduced, postponed, and inhibited. Freud showed that the ego can be both in control of the id and dependent on it. The same applies to the superego. He warned against making a "world view" out of a statement, since views can always be revised in analysis.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Part III. Relationship of the ego to the id and to the symptoms.
The ego is the organized part of the id. As a rule, the instinctual impulse to be repressed remains isolated. The initial act of repression is followed by a protracted or endless sequence in which the fight against the instinctual impulse is prolonged into a fight against the symptom. In this secondary defense struggle, the ego presents two faces with contradictory expressions. One behavior he adopts arises from the fact that his nature compels him to do what must be viewed as an attempt at recovery or reconciliation. The presence of a symptom may indicate impaired functioning, and this can be exploited to satisfy a superego demand or to reject a demand from the outside world. In this way, the symptom gradually becomes the representative of important interests. In obsessional neurosis and paranoia, the forms the symptoms take become very valuable to the ego because they do not give it certain advantages, but rather a narcissistic satisfaction that it otherwise lacks. All this leads to a secondary disease gain that follows a neurosis. The second line of behavior of the ego is less friendly in character as it progresses in the direction of repression.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Part IV. Fear breeds repression.
A childish, hysterical animal phobia is portrayed, little Juan's horse phobia. Little Hans refused to go outside because he was afraid a horse would bite him. It was due to Oedipus' jealous and hostile attitude towards his father, whom he nevertheless loved very much. There is a conflict of ambivalence here: a well-founded love and a no less justifiable hatred directed at the same person. Little Hans' phobia must have been an attempt to resolve this conflict. The impulse suppressed in little Hans was hostile to his father. Little Hans claimed he was afraid of being bitten by a horse. The idea of ​​being eaten by the father is typical childhood material. It has family parallels in mythology and the animal kingdom. Two instinctive impulses were overcome by repression, sadistic aggressiveness towards the father and a tender passivity towards him. The formation of his phobia had also resulted in his disguise as his mother's affective object being abolished. The driving force behind the repression was the fear of castration. His fear of being bitten by a horse can have the full meaning of a fear of being bitten by a horse on his castrated genitals. A comparison of the phobias presented by Wolf Man and Little Hans showed that while there were clear differences in their stories, the result was the same. This was explained by examining the anxiety of the 2 patients. The fear was seen as a response to castration fear, which was seen as either real or imminent. It was this fear arising in the ego that set in motion the regression process that eventually led to the emergence of the phobia. The fear now had 2 sources: one from the id (disturbed libido) and the other from the ego.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Title V. Defenses Other Than Repression.
Conversion hysteria does not express fear. The formation of symptoms in conversion hysteria is unclear. It presents a diverse and varied picture for which no unified explanation is available. The most common symptoms of conversion hysteria are motor paralysis, contractures, involuntary actions or discharges, pain and hallucinations. They are cathetic processes that are permanently maintained or are intermittent. The symptoms belonging to the obsessional neuroses are divided into 2 groups, each with opposite tendencies. They are either prohibitions, precautionary measures and atonements, or they are substitute satisfactions that often appear disguised in symbolic form. By imposing regression, the ego achieves its first success in its defensive struggle against the demands of the libido. In obsessions, perhaps more than in normals or hysterics, the driving force of the defense is the castration complex, and what is defended are the tendencies of the Oedipus complex. The reaction formations in the ego of the obsessional neurotic are to be regarded as a further defense mechanism. Other defense mechanisms alluded to in this state are: reversal, regression, isolation. Ambivalence is also described as a major contributor to the emergence of obsessive-compulsive disorder for reasons unknown. The main task during the latency period seems to be to ward off the temptation to masturbate. This struggle produces a series of symptoms that occur in a variety of individuals in a typical manner and mostly have a ceremonial character. The arrival of puberty opens a crucial chapter in the history of obsessive-compulsive disorder. The all too strict superego insists on the suppression of sexuality. In obsessive-compulsive neurosis, the conflict worsens in two directions: the defenses become more intolerant and the forces to be defended become more intolerable. Both effects are due to the decrease in libido. Obsessive states that are not associated with guilt are mentioned. These seem to be more related to the gratification of masochistic impulses.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Part VI. Undo and isolate.
There are two symptomatic activities of the self that deserve special attention because they are substitutes for repression. The two activities are to undo and isolate what happened. The first of them has a wide range of applications. It is negative magic, so to speak, and tries to eliminate not only the consequences of an event, but the event itself through motor symbolism. In OCD, the undoing technique is first found within the two-phase symptoms, where one action is undone by a second, making it as if no action had taken place. This goal of undoing is the second underlying motive of compulsive ceremonies, the first being to take rational precautions to prevent the occurrence or reoccurrence of a particular event. The second technique, isolation, is typical of obsessional neurosis. When something unpleasant has happened to the subject, or when he himself has done something relevant to his neurosis, he engages in a period of time when nothing else should be happening. It is particularly difficult for an obsessional neurotic to apply the basic rule of psychoanalysis. His ego is more alert and makes more acute isolations, probably due to the high level of tension due to the conflict that exists between his superego and his id. In striving to prevent thought associations and connections, the ego obeys one of the oldest and most fundamental tenets of obsessional neurosis, the taboo of touch. Touch avoidance is paramount in this disease, as it is the immediate target of both aggressive and amorous object investments.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Part VII. Fear is a sign of a dangerous separation.
In animal phobias, the ego has to oppose a libidinal object cathexis originating from the id, belonging to the positive or negative Oedipus complex, because it believes that to yield would entail the danger of castration. The aggressive impulse stems mainly from the destructive instinct. As soon as the ego recognizes the danger of castration, it gives the signal of fear and, through the pleasure-displeasure agency, inhibits the forthcoming catectic process in the id. At the same time, the phobia arises. Now the fear of castration is directed to another object and manifests itself in a distorted form, so that the patient is afraid not of being castrated by the father, but of being bitten by a horse or eaten by a wolf. Phobias are projective in the sense that they replace an internal, instinctive danger with an external, perceptual one. The fear felt in animal phobias is an affective ego response to danger; and the danger so designated is the danger of castration. A phobia usually occurs after an initial anxiety attack has occurred under certain circumstances, such as B. on the street, on the train or in solitude. Fear is a reaction to a dangerous situation. It is obvious when the ego does something to avoid or escape from this situation. The symptoms are then considered to have been created to avoid a dangerous situation, the presence of which was signaled by the generation of fear. Narcissistic neuroses are explained on the basis of the presence of a sexual factor, narcissism, which emphasizes the libidinal nature of the instinct of self-preservation. Since the unconscious cannot imagine its annihilation and since the unconscious must contribute something to the formation of narcissistic neuroses, the fear of death must be analogous to the fear of castration. The ego responds to being abandoned by the protective superego, the forces of destiny. In addition, the protective shield against excessive external excitement is broken.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Part VII. Fear reproduces feelings of helplessness.
Anxiety is an affective state. Analysis of anxiety states reveals: 1) a specific unpleasure character, 2) relief actions, and 3) perceptions of those actions. Anxiety is considered a reproduction of birth trauma. Fear originally arose as a reaction to a dangerous state. Played each time the Danger Level repeats. Only some of the expressions of fear in children are understandable to us. They occur, for example, when a child is alone, in the dark, or when meeting an unfamiliar person who is not familiar. These 3 cases can be reduced to a single condition, which is missing a loved one and longed for. The child's memory of the longed-for person is doubtless intensely charged, at first probably hallucinatory. But that has no effect; and now the longing seems to turn to fear. The economic disruption caused by an accumulation of stimulus amounts that need to be eliminated is the very essence of the "danger". The dissatisfaction with a growing tension of needs, from which the child wants to be protected, repeats the dangerous situation of birth. From this point on, anxiety undergoes various transformations in parallel with the various stages of libido development. The importance of object loss as a determinant of anxiety spans a long period of time. The fear of castration, which belongs to the phallic phase, is also a fear of separation and is therefore linked to the same determinant. In this case, the danger must be separated from the genitals. The transformation that follows is caused by the power of the superego. Fear of castration becomes moral fear. The loss of love plays a very similar role in hysteria as does the threat of castration in phobias and the fear of the superego in obsessional neurosis. The common notion of fear is that of a signal given by the ego to influence the pleasure-pain agency. There is no superego or id fear. The id can only be the locus of the processes that cause the ego to generate fear.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Part IX. Relationship between symptom formation and anxiety.
The relationship between symptom formation and fear generation is considered. There are 2 widespread opinions on this topic. One is that anxiety itself is a symptom of neurosis. On the other hand, there is a much more intimate relationship between the two, according to the second opinion, the symptoms are only formed to avoid fear. Symptoms are created to get the ego out of a dangerous situation. If the development of symptoms is prevented, the danger actually materializes. The formation of symptoms ends the dangerous situation. The defense process is analogous to flight, through which the ego escapes a danger that threatens it from outside. The defensive process is an attempt to flee an instinctual danger. Examining the determinants of anxiety puts the defensiveness of the glorified ego in a rational light. Every dangerous situation corresponds to a specific phase of life or a specific developmental phase of the mental apparatus and is therefore justifiable. Many people remain childish in their behavior in the face of danger and do not overcome the now obsolete determinants of fear. Signs of infantile neuroses can be found in all adult neurotics; however, not all children who show these signs become neurotic in adulthood. So it must be that as the individual matures, certain determinants of fear are given up and certain dangerous situations lose their meaning. Furthermore, some of these dangerous situations manage to persist in later times by modifying their fear determinants in order to actualize them. Other determinants of fear, such as fear of the superego, are destined not to go away at all.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Part X. Repetition is the consequence of repression.
Fear is the reaction to danger. If the ego succeeds in protecting itself from a dangerous instinctual impulse through repression, it has inhibited and damaged the part of the id in question; but at the same time it has given it a certain independence and relinquished some of its own sovereignty. Among the factors which play a part in causing neuroses and which have created the conditions in which the forces of the soul confront each other, three stand out: a biological factor, a phylogenetic factor and a purely psychological one. The biological factor is the long time that the youth of humanity is in a state of helplessness and dependence. The existence of the phylogenetic factor is based solely on inference. We have been misled into assuming it by a curious trait in the development of the libido. The sexual life of man makes no steady progress from birth to maturity, but, after an early bloom, experiences a very decided interruption until the fifth year; and then resumes its course in puberty, resuming the interrupted beginnings of early childhood. The third factor, the psychic, lies in a defect in our psychic apparatus, which has to do with its differentiation into id and I and can therefore ultimately also be traced back to the influence of the outside world. The ego cannot protect itself from inner instinctual dangers as well as it can from reality. It consents to the formation of symptoms in exchange for damaging the instinct.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Part XI. Additions: A. Change of previous positions.
An important element of the theory of displacement is the view that displacement is not a one-off event, but requires a constant expenditure of energy. When this expenditure ceased, the repressed impulse, which constantly feeds on its sources, would next flow into the channels from which it was expelled, and the repression would either serve no purpose, or would have to be repeated indefinitely of times. . Since the instincts are continuous in nature, the ego must provide for its defenses by constant effort. This action taken to protect the repression is observable in the analytic treatment as resistance. Resistance presupposes what is called counter-cathexis. The resistance that has to be overcome in analysis comes from the ego clinging to its countercathexes. Five types of resistances were identified: the resistances of the self, divided into resistance to regression, resistance to transference, and disease gain; the resistance of the id, i.e. the compulsion to repeat; the resistance of the superego, the feeling of guilt or the need for punishment. The ego is the source of fear. Fear is the general reaction to dangerous situations. The term defense is used explicitly as a general term for all techniques that the ego uses in conflicts that can lead to neuroses. Repression remains as a special defense method. The concept of defense includes all processes that have the same goal, the protection of the self from instinctive demands. Repression is included as a special case.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Part XI. Additions: B. Additional comments on anxiety.
Fear has a clear relationship to expectation: it is fear of something. It has a quality of vagueness and objectlessness. In precise words, we use the word fear instead of fear when you have found an object. There are 2 reactions to real danger. One is an affective response, an outburst of fear. The other is a protective effect. A dangerous situation is a recognised, remembered and expected situation of powerlessness. Fear is the original reaction to helplessness in the trauma and later reproduces itself in the dangerous situation as a signal for help. The self that passively lived through the trauma is now actively repeating it in an attenuated version, hoping to direct its own course. There seems to be a close connection between anxiety and neurosis, for the ego uses the anxiety reaction to defend itself against an instinctive danger as well as against a real external danger; However, due to an imperfection of the mental apparatus, this line of defense ends in a neurosis.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Part XI. addendum. C. Fear, pain and sadness.
The situation of the infant's motherlessness is not a dangerous situation, but a traumatic one. It is a traumatic situation when the child feels a need that his mother should satisfy. It becomes a dangerous situation when that need isn't there. The first determinant of fear introduced by the self itself is loss of perception of the object. The experiences then teach the child that the object can be present but angry with it; and then the loss of the object's love becomes a new and much more permanent danger and a determinant of fear. Pain is the reaction itself to the loss of an object, while fear is the reaction to the danger that the loss entails. Pain occurs first and, as usual, whenever a stimulus impinging on the periphery passes through the devices of the stimulus shield and acts as a continuous drive stimulus against which muscular action usually counteracts. because it deprives the stimulated place of the stimulus, it is powerless. When there is physical pain, there is a high level of what might be termed narcissistic occupation of the painful site. This investment keeps increasing and tends to drain the ego. The transition from physical to mental pain corresponds to a change from narcissistic cathexis to object cathexis. Grief arises under the influence of reality testing; for this last function categorically requires the mourner to separate from the object, since it no longer exists. Mourning is entrusted with the task of carrying out this distancing from the object in all those situations in which it has been the object of a high investiture.

1926
Inhibitions, symptoms and fear
Appendix A: “Repression” and “Defense”.
Repression and defense are discussed. Both repression and defense took place very freely in Freud's Breuer period. The repression first appeared in the Preliminary Notice, and the defense in the first article on the defense's neuropsychosis. In the studies of hysteria, repression appeared a dozen times and defense a little more often. After the Breuer period, the frequency of defensive use decreased. However, it has not been completely abandoned. But repression was already beginning to predominate, and was employed almost exclusively in the story of the Dora case and the Three Essays. Shortly thereafter, in an article on sexuality in neuroses from June 1905, attention was expressly drawn to the change. After 1905, the prevalence of displacement increased even further. But it was not long before the usefulness of defense as a broader concept than repression began to emerge quietly, particularly in metapsychological works. Thus the vicissitudes of the instincts, of which only one is repression, were regarded as a means of defense against them, and projection was spoken of as a defense mechanism or means.

1926
The question of lay analysis. Conversations with a neutral person. Editor's note.
In the late spring of 1926, proceedings began in Vienna against Theodor Reik, a leading non-physician member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. According to a person he treated analytically, he was accused of violating an old Austrian law against quackery, a law that prohibited a person without a medical degree from treating patients. Freud intervened vigorously. He discussed the position privately with a high-ranking official and then drafted the pamphlet The Question of Lay Analysis for immediate publication. The publication of Freud's paper brought to light the strong disagreements about the permissibility of non-medical psychoanalysis that existed within the psychoanalytic societies themselves. From the earliest times, Freud believed that psychoanalysis should not be viewed as a purely medical matter.

1926
The question of lay analysis
Introduction and Part I
The question of lay analysis is discussed. Layman means non-physician. In Germany and the United States, every patient can be treated how and by whom they want, and whoever wants can treat any patient. The law does not intervene until asked to atone for harm done to the patient. But in Austria there is a prevention law that prohibits non-doctors from treating patients without waiting for the result. A patient realizes that he is ill and goes to the doctors who are expected to eliminate nervous disorders. Doctors determine the categories into which these ailments are divided. They are diagnosed with different names: neurasthenia, psychasthenia, phobias, obsessive-compulsive neurosis, hysteria. They examine the organs causing the symptoms and find them healthy. They recommend breaks in the patient's usual way of life, and these remedies produce temporary improvements or no results at all. Eventually the patients hear that there are people who care deeply about the treatment of such ailments and begin an analysis with them. The analyst and the patient talk to each other. We ask the patient to be completely straight. Proceed with your analyst, intentionally keeping nothing that comes to mind, and then letting go of any reservations that might prevent you from reporting specific thoughts or memories.

1926
The question of lay analysis
Part II
The question of lay analysis is discussed. We really conceive of the unknown apparatus serving the activities of the mind as an instrument made up of several parts, entities, each fulfilling a specific function and each having a fixed spatial relationship to one another. We recognize in man a psychic organization which interpolates between, on the one hand, its sensory stimuli and the perception of its somatic needs and, on the other hand, its motor acts, and meditates for a specific purpose between them. This organization is called your ego. There is another mental region, larger, more imposing, and darker than the ego: it's called the id. We assume that the ego is the layer of the mental apparatus (the id) that has been modified by the influence of the outside world. The I and the id are very different from each other in various aspects. The rules for the course of mental acts are different in the ego and in the id; the ego pursues other purposes and in other ways. Everything that happens in the id is and remains unconscious; Processes in the ego can become conscious. But not all are, still, still necessarily; and large parts of the ego can remain permanently unconscious. The ego is the outer peripheral layer of the id. We require that anyone wishing to perform analysis on other people undergo analysis first.

1926
The question of lay analysis
Part III
The question of lay analysis is discussed. Bodily needs, insofar as they provide a stimulus for mental activity, are called instincts. These instincts fill the id: all the energy of the id emanates from them. The powers of the ego derive from those of the id. These instincts want satisfaction. If the instinctual demands of the id are not satisfied, unbearable conditions arise. The instincts in the id push for instant gratification at any cost and get nowhere or even do significant harm. It is the ego's job to ward off such mishaps, to mediate between the demands of the id and the objections of the outside world. There is no natural opposition between the ego and the id. When the ego experiences an instinctual demand from the id which it would like to resist but cannot control, the ego treats the instinctual danger as if it were external; makes an escape attempt. The ego sets up a suppression of the instinctual impulses. The ego made an attempt to inappropriately suppress certain parts of the id, this attempt failed, and the id took revenge in neurosis. A neurosis is the result of a conflict between the ego and the id. The therapeutic goal is to restore the ego and regain control of the id. The ego is asked to correct the repressions. This involves re-analyzing childhood using the patient's symptoms, dreams, and free associations.

1926
The question of lay analysis
Part IV. The question of lay analysis is discussed. The analysis is based on absolute openness. This commitment to sincerity places a serious moral responsibility on both analyst and patient. Sex life factors play an extremely important, dominant, perhaps even specific, role among the causes and precipitating factors of neurotic diseases. The recognition of sexuality has become the strongest motive for people's hostility to analysis. Sex life isn't just something spicy; it is also a serious scientific problem. The analysis must go back to the patient's early childhood, because then the crucial repressions took place while his ego was weak. The instinctive sexual drives accompany life from birth, and it is precisely in order to defend itself against these drives that the infantile ego uses repressions. Sexual function goes through a complicated developmental process. If obstacles to the performance of the sexual function later arise, the sex drive, the libido, tends to revert to the previous fixation point. The two-phase beginning of sex life has a lot to do with the genesis of neurotic diseases. It appears to be unique to humans and is perhaps one of the determinants of human privilege to become neurotic. The 2 elimination needs of children are associated with sexual interest. Children take a long time to develop feelings of disgust. Children regularly direct their sexual desires towards their closest relatives. It is the sexual desires towards the parent of the opposite sex, with the concomitant hostility towards the opposite parent, that form the basis of the Oedipus complex. Reactivation of this complex during puberty can have serious consequences. The child's first object choice is therefore incestuous. Evidence for this is supported by the study of history, mythology and anthropology.

1926
The question of lay analysis
Part V
The question of lay analysis is discussed. The analyst infers from what the patient says the kinds of impressions, experiences and desires that he has repressed because he encountered them at a time when his ego was still weak and he was afraid of them instead of himself to deal with them. Once the patient has learned this, he puts himself back into the old situations and copes better. Then the limitations his ego was bound to go away and he is healed. The material must be interpreted at the right time, when the patient has come so close to the repressed material that it only takes a few steps to get there. It can be shown that patients express a desire for improvement, but on the other hand do not want to improve. This results from the "disease gain". This constitutes one of the resistances to psychoanalysis. There are 3 other resistances: the feeling of guilt and the need for punishment emanating from the superego; the need for the instinctive drive to find satisfaction in a way it has always known, a resistance of the id; Resistance to repression by the ego. The emotional relationship that the patient enters into with the analysis is of a rather peculiar nature. This emotional connection is in the nature of falling in love. This love is of a positively compulsive kind. It has taken the place of neurosis. The patient, in the form of being in love with the analyst, repeats psychic experiences that he has already had; he transferred to the analyst psychological attitudes that were arranged in him and that were closely connected with his neurosis. This transference love, because it is really a pathological love, acts as a resistance to analysis (and is thus the fifth great resistance in analysis). He also repeats his old defenses. The entire ability to handle the transmission is geared toward producing it. There are 2 institutes where psychoanalysis is taught. Anyone who has gone through a course, who has analyzed themselves, who has learned the delicate technique of psychoanalysis (the art of interpreting, fighting resistance, overcoming transference) is no longer a layman in the field of psychoanalysis.

1926
The question of lay analysis
Part VI.
The question of lay analysis is discussed. It seems as if the neuroses were a special kind of illness and analysis a special method of treatment, a special field of medicine. However, physicians have no historical right to exclusive possession of the analysis. In his medical school, a doctor receives training that is more or less the opposite of what he would need to prepare for psychoanalysis, especially since medical training instills a wrong and harmful attitude towards neuroses. The work of an untrained analyst does less harm to his patients than that of an unqualified surgeon. Freud asserts that no one should practice analysis unless they have acquired the right to do so through special training. At the insistence of the medical profession, the authorities want to completely ban the analysis practice of lay people. Such a ban would also affect the non-physician members of the Psychoanalytic Society, who have enjoyed excellent training and have greatly improved through practice. According to Austrian law, a charlatan (layman) is anyone who treats patients without having a state diploma to prove their medical status. Freud proposes a different definition: A quack is anyone who performs a treatment without having the knowledge and skills to do so.

1926
The question of lay analysis
Teil VII.
The question of lay analysis is discussed. In analytical practice, a doctor has a clear advantage over a layman when it comes to making a diagnosis. The patient may show the outward appearance of a neurosis and yet it may be something else: the beginning of an incurable mental illness or the precursor to brain death. If a subsequent physical illness can produce a weakening of the ego, then this illness can also produce a neurosis. According to Freud, when an analyst, whether medical or not, suspects an organic disease, the analyst should seek the help of a physician. Give 3 reasons: 1) It is not a good plan to do a combination of organic and psychic treatments by the same person; 2) the transference relationship may prevent the analyst from physically examining the patient; and 3) the analyst has every reason to doubt that he is free from prejudice because his interest is so focused on psychological factors. It does not matter to the patient whether the analyst is a doctor or not, as long as the risk of a misinterpretation of his condition by the necessary medical report before the start of the treatment and possibly during the treatment is excluded. . Analytic training extends across the field of medical training, but none is inclusive of the other. Freud did not believe that medical training was necessary for an analyst. He did not consider it desirable for an analyst. He did not think it desirable that psychoanalysis should be swallowed up by medicine and subsumed as a subsidiary field of psychiatry. The training of social workers was analytically envisaged to combat neuroses. He was of the opinion that the inner development of psychoanalysis could never be impeded by regulations or prohibitions.

1927
The question of lay analysis
postscript. (1927).
The indictment against Dr. Theodor Reik was dropped in the Vienna courts. The prosecution's case was too weak and the person who had filed the prosecution as an injured party turned out to be an unreliable witness. Freud's main thesis in The Question of Lay Analysis was that the important question was whether an analyst had a medical degree but had the specialized training required for the practice of analysis. It remains to create a training scheme for analysts. It should include elements of the humanities, psychology, cultural history and sociology as well as anatomy, biology and evolutionary research. Psychoanalysis is a part of psychology; not from medical psychology, not from the psychology of disease processes, but simply from psychology. He asks his American colleagues not to exclude lay analysts from training, as this might interest them in raising their own ethical and intellectual level while at the same time influencing them to try to prevent their unscrupulous practices.

1927
The future of an illusion
Editor's note (1961) and
Part I. Civilization is based on the renunciation of instinctive desires.

The Future of an Illusion began a series of studies that would become Freud's main concern for the rest of his life. Human civilization presents two aspects to the observer. It encompasses all the knowledge and skills acquired by human beings for controlling the forces of nature and extracting its riches for the satisfaction of human needs, as well as all the norms necessary to regulate human relations and, in particular, the distribution of the world adjust available wealth. One gets the impression that civilization is something imposed on a resistant majority by a minority that knew how to usurp the means of power and coercion. Only through the influence of individuals who can set an example, and who are recognized by the masses as their leaders, can they be made to do the work and suffer the renunciation on which civilization's very existence depends. All is well when these leaders are people who have a superior vision of life's necessities and who have managed to master their own instinctive desires. But there is a danger that, in order not to lose their influence, they will yield to the crowd more than the crowd to them, and therefore it seems necessary that they should be independent of the crowd, having at their disposal means of power.

Part II. Consequences of instinctive resignation.
Part III. What is the special value of religious ideas?
Every civilization is based on compulsion to work and instinctive renunciation and therefore inevitably evokes resistance among those affected. The fact that an instinct cannot be satisfied is a frustration. The rule that creates this frustration is called prohibition, and the condition that creates that prohibition is called deprivation. Deprivations that affect everyone include the instinctive desire for incest, cannibalism, and the lust for killing. People will be too inclined to count their ideals among the psychic assets of a culture. The narcissistic satisfaction with the cultural ideal is based on pride in what has already been achieved and is also one of the forces that manage to combat anti-culture within the cultural unit. Art provides a different kind of satisfaction for the participants in a cultural unit; it offers a substitute satisfaction for the older and even more deeply felt renunciation of culture. Man's need to make his homelessness bearable gave rise to a store of religious ideas, built up from the material of his own childhood and mankind's childhood memories of homelessness. The possession of these ideas protects him in two ways, from the dangers of nature and fate, and from the injuries threatened by human society itself.

Part IV. Origins of Religion.
Freud tried to show that religious ideas arose out of the same necessity as all other achievements of civilization: the need to resist the overwhelming superiority of nature. There was also a second reason: the desire to remedy the lack of civilization that was sorely felt. When the growing human discovers that he is destined to remain a child forever, that he can never do without protection from foreign higher powers, he endows these powers with the traits that are his father figure's own; he creates the gods he fears and seeks to appease, but entrusts to them for his own protection. His longing for a father is an identical motive to his need for protection from the consequences of his human weakness. The defense against the child's helplessness gives its characteristic traits to the adult's reaction to the helplessness which he must recognize, a reaction which is precisely the formation of religion.

Part V. The psychological significance of religious ideas.
Part VI. Religious ideas are illusions.
Religious ideas are teachings and statements about facts and states of external or internal reality that tell you something that you have not discovered yourself and that invite you to believe. Since they give us information about what is most important and interesting for us in life, they are particularly valued. Religious teachings justify their belief in the first place because our primitive ancestors believed in them; secondly, we have testimonies handed down to us from these primeval times; and thirdly, it is forbidden to even ask for its authentication. Illusions stem from human desires. Freud claims that religious teachings are psychological illusions and therefore unprovable.

Part VII. Relations between Civilization and Religion.
Religion has rendered great services to human civilization. She has done much, but not enough, to tame antisocial instincts. It has ruled human society for many thousands of years and has had time to show what it can accomplish. If he had succeeded in making the majority of humanity happy, comforting them, reconciling them with life and turning them into a vehicle of civilization, no one would think of trying to change the existing conditions. However, there are a large number of people who are dissatisfied with civilization and dissatisfied with it. Civilization has little to fear from the educated and intellectuals. In them the substitution of religious motives for civilized behavior by other secular ones would proceed discreetly; moreover, such people are to a great extent vehicles of civilization. But it is different with the great mass of the ignorant and oppressed who have every reason to be enemies of civilization. Either these dangerous masses must be severely suppressed and carefully barred from any possibility of intellectual awakening, or the relationship between civilization and religion must undergo a fundamental revision.

Part VIII. Religion is a substitute for rationality.
When civilization established the dictate that a man must not kill a neighbor whom he hates, who stands in his way, or whose property he covets, it was clearly in the interest of man's otherwise impractical communal existence. The original Father was the original image of God, the model from which later generations modeled the form of God. God really did have a role in creating this prohibition; It was His influence, not some perception of social need, that created it. The men knew that they had gotten rid of their father by force, and in their reaction to this ungodly act they were determined to henceforth respect his will. The pool of religious ideas includes not only wish-fulfilment, but also important historical memories. The analogy between religion and obsessional neurosis has been repeatedly demonstrated. Many of the peculiarities and vicissitudes of religious formation can be understood in this light. It is suggested that certain religious doctrines should no longer be presented as reasons for civilization's imperatives. Religious doctrines are viewed as neurotic relics, and Freud argues that the time has come to replace the effects of repression with the results of the rational workings of the intellect.

Part IX. Is rationality possible?
Part X. Relation of Religion to Science.
A believer is bound by certain bonds of affection to the teachings of religion. There is certainly no point in starting to overthrow religion by force and in one fell swoop. Religion is comparable to an infantile neurosis, and as many children grow out of their similar neurosis, humanity will outgrow this neurotic phase. The primacy of the intellect is in the distant future, but probably not in the infinite. He will probably set himself the same goals as those which you expect your God to achieve, namely love for humanity and alleviation of suffering. Our mental apparatus evolved precisely in an attempt to explore the outside world, and therefore must have realized some measure of convenience in its structure. It is itself a constitutive part of the world we wish to study, and it readily admits of such study. The task of science is fully accomplished when we limit it to showing us how the world must appear to us as a result of the particular character of our organization. The latest discoveries in science are determined not only by our organization precisely because of the way they are acquired, but also by the things that have influenced that organization. The problem of the nature of the world without regard to our perceptual apparatus is an empty abstraction with no practical interest. Science is not an illusion. But it would be an illusion to assume that what science cannot give us, we can get elsewhere.

1930
civilization and its dissatisfaction
1930
civilization and its dissatisfaction
Part I. Man's need for religion arises from feelings of helplessness.
One cannot help but get the impression that people often set false standards, seek and admire power, success and wealth for themselves and in others, and underestimate the true values ​​in life. However, we run the risk of forgetting how diverse the human world and its inner life are. One objection to Freud's treatment of religion as an illusion was that he had failed to adequately appreciate the true source of religious sentiment, which lay in an oceanic sense of something boundless at one with the outside world at large. The genetic explanation of such a feeling concludes that the ego originally encompasses everything and then separates an outside world from itself. Our current sense of ego is but a reduced remnant of a much larger, all-encompassing feeling that corresponds to a closer connection between the ego and the world around it. So, while we admit that the "oceanic" feeling is present in many people, it is not at the origin of the religious attitude that stems from the feeling of childhood helplessness.

1930
civilization and its dissatisfaction
Part II. Man deals with adversity through distraction, substitution, and intoxication.
The question of the meaning of human life has been raised countless times; have not yet received a satisfactory answer. Men fight for happiness. This effort has two sides: it aims at the absence of pain and displeasure and at experiencing strong feelings of pleasure. One of the ways to avoid suffering is chemical poisoning. Another technique is to use the shifts in libido that our psychic apparatus allows and that make its function so flexible. In another method, satisfaction is gained from illusions that are recognized as such, without allowing the discrepancy between them and reality to affect enjoyment. Another approach sees reality as the only enemy and the source of all suffering that one cannot live with, so that one must sever any relationship with it if one is to have any happiness. Happiness in life can be sought primarily in the enjoyment of beauty. The predominantly erotic male will prioritize his affective relationships with other people; the narcissistic man, who tends to be self-sufficient, will seek his main satisfaction in his inner mental processes; the man of action will never leave the outer world where he can test his powers. Religion constrains the game of choice and accommodation, as it imposes on everyone equally their own way of acquiring happiness and protection from suffering.

1930
civilization and its dissatisfaction
Part III. Man's Conflict with Civilization: Freedom versus Equality.
Suffering has three sources: the higher power of nature, the weakness of our own body, and the inadequacy of the norms that regulate the mutual relationships of people in the family, state, and society. Civilization denotes the set of achievements and norms that distinguish our lives from those of our animal ancestors and that serve two purposes: to protect people from nature and to regulate their mutual relationships. As cultural, we recognize all activities and resources that are useful to people, to make the earth useful to them and to protect it from the violence of the forces of nature. The first acts of civilization were the use of tools, the mastery of fire, and the building of houses. Psychoanalytic experience regularly confirms the connection between ambition, fire and urethral eroticism. We recognize that countries have reached a high level of civilization when we demonstrate that everything that can assist man's exploitation of the earth and protection from forces is cultivated and effectively carried out in them. Beauty, cleanliness and order have a special place among the requirements of civilization. No feature seems to better characterize civilization than its appreciation and encouragement of man's higher spiritual activities, his intellectual, scientific, and artistic achievements, and the leading role it ascribes to ideas in human life. First among these ideas are religious systems; then come the speculations of philosophy; and finally what might be called the ideals of man: his conceptions of the possible perfection of individuals or of peoples or of humanity as a whole, and the claims he makes on the basis of such conceptions.

1930
civilization and its dissatisfaction
Part IV. Two Pillars of Civilization: Eros and Ananke.
Once primitive man had discovered that it was literally in his own hands to work to better his lot on earth, he could not be indifferent to whether another man worked with him or against him. The other man acquired for him the value of an employee. The man's discovery that sexual love gave him the strongest experiences of satisfaction and even provided him with the prototype of all happiness must have suggested to him that he should seek the satisfaction of happiness in his life further through sexual relations and that he should turn genital eroticism into should make the center of his life. When the man assumed an upright posture and his sense of smell was reduced, not only his anal eroticism but his entire sexuality threatened to fall victim to organic repression, which from then on led him to a disgust that prevented his complete satisfaction and kept him away from the sexual end towards sublimations and libidinal shifts. The love that founded the family continues to operate in civilization both in its original form, in which it does not renounce direct sexual gratification, and in its modified form as inhibited affect. In each of them, it continues to fulfill its function of uniting a significant number of people in a more intense way than interest in working together can. Civilization's tendency to restrict sex life is no less evident than its other tendency to expand cultural unity.

1930
civilization and its dissatisfaction
Part V. Security at the expense of restricting sexuality and aggression.
Psychoanalytic work has shown us that it is precisely the frustrations of sex life that people known as neurotics cannot endure. The neurotic creates substitute satisfactions in his symptoms, which either cause him suffering in themselves, or they become sources of suffering for him by creating difficulties in his relationships with his surroundings and with the society to which he belongs. Men are not gentle beings who want to be loved and at best can fight back when attacked; on the contrary, they are creatures whose instinctive endowments include a strong proportion of aggressiveness. The presence of this propensity for aggression is the factor that disrupts our relationships with others and that forces civilization to expend so much energy. As a result of this primary mutual hostility among humans, civilized society is constantly threatened with disintegration. The communist system is based on an untenable psychological illusion, because by abolishing private property we have not changed in any way or nature the differences in power and influence abused by aggression. Because civilization places such great sacrifices on man's sexuality and aggression, civilized man has traded part of his happiness for part of security.

1930
civilization and its dissatisfaction
Part VI. Arguments for an instinct for aggression and destruction.
The drive theory is the part of the analytical theory that has groped its way the most painfully. First, the ego drives (hunger) and the object drives (love) collided. Introducing the concept of narcissism convinced Freud that instincts cannot all be of the same type. In addition to the instinct to keep the substance alive and to unite it into larger and larger units, there must be another counter-instinct that seeks to dissolve these units. Alongside Eros, then, there was a death instinct, the activities of which were not easily ascertained. Part of the instinct is diverted outward and comes out as an instinct for aggressiveness and destructiveness. Sadism and masochism are examples of Eros and the death instinct appearing as allies. The gratification of instincts through destructiveness, even when it occurs without a sexual purpose, is accompanied by an extraordinarily high degree of narcissistic pleasure. The tendency to aggression is a primal instinct that exists for itself. It represents the greatest obstacle to civilization. Civilization is a process in the service of Eros, the purpose of which is to unite single human individuals, and then families, then places, peoples and nations into one great unity, the unity of humanity. The work of Eros is just that. The aggression instinct is the derivative and main representative of the death instinct, which we have found together with Eros and which shares the realm of the world with him. The evolution of civilization must represent the struggle between eros and death, between the instinct for life and the instinct for destruction, as it develops in the human species.

1930
civilization and its dissatisfaction
Part VII. Development of the superego and its severity.
Civilization gains mastery over the individual's dangerous need for aggression by weakening and disarming him, and establishing within him an agency to watch over him like a garrison in a conquered city. There are two origins of guilt: one that arises from fear of authority, and another that later arises from fear of the superego. The first insists on renouncing instinctive gratifications; the second also urges punishment, since the continuation of forbidden desires cannot remain hidden from the superego. The severity of the superego is simply a continuation of the severity of the external authority that has superseded and partially replaced it. Because civilization obeys an inner erotic impulse that draws people together as a tightly knit group, it can only achieve this goal through ever-increasing guilt. If civilization is a necessary trajectory from the family to the whole of humanity, then inseparably associated with it is an increase in guilt, perhaps reaching levels that the individual finds difficult to bear.

1930
civilization and its dissatisfaction
Part VIII. Conclusions on the Effects of Civilization on the Psyche.
The superego is an agency deduced by Freud; Consciousness is a function that Freud ascribes to this entity, among other functions. This function is to monitor and judge the ego's actions and intentions by exercising censorship. The feeling of guilt, the harshness of the superego, is therefore the same as the severity of the conscience. In the process of development of the individual, the program of the pleasure principle, which is to find the satisfaction of happiness, is maintained as the main goal. Integration or assimilation into a human community appears as a condition that is difficult to avoid and must be fulfilled before this goal of happiness can be achieved. The development of the individual appears to be the product of the interaction between two drives, the drive for happiness, often termed egoistic, and the drive for association with others in the community, termed altruistic. One can say that the community develops a superego under whose influence cultural development takes place. The cultural superego has established its ideals and established its demands. Among the latter are those dealing with human relations, under the heading of ethics. The fateful question for the human species seems to be whether and to what extent their cultural development will succeed in controlling the disruption of their community life through the human drive for aggression and self-destruction.

1927
fetishism
Freud had the opportunity to study analytically several men whose object choice was dominated by a fetish. The most extraordinary case seemed to be one in which a young man had made a certain kind of shine on his nose a fetishistic requirement. The fetish, originating from earliest childhood, was to be understood in his mother tongue, English, not in German. The shine on the nose was actually a nose look. So the nose was the fetish. In the analysis, the sense and purpose of the fetish turned out to be the same in all cases. The fetish is a substitute for the penis: the woman's (mother's) penis, which the child once believed in and no longer wants to give up. The fetish achieves a sign of triumph over the threat of castration and serves as protection against it. It also prevents the fetishist from becoming homosexual, giving women the quality that makes them tolerable as sex objects. Because the fetish is easily accessible, the fetishist can easily gain the sexual satisfaction that comes with it. The choice of the fetish object seems to be determined by the last impression before the strange and traumatic: in very subtle cases both the denial and the affirmation of the castration have found their way into the construction of the fetish itself. In conclusion, Freud says that the normal prototype of fetishes is the male penis, just as the normal prototype of the internal organ is the actual small female penis, the clitoris.

1927
Humor
humor is spoken. There are two ways the humorous process can take place. It can take place opposite a single person taking the humorous stance, while a second person plays the part of a spectator enjoying it; or it takes place between two persons, one of whom takes no part in the humorous process at all, but is the subject of humorous consideration by the other. Like jokes and comics, there is something liberating about humor; but it also has something of grandeur and grandeur that the other two kinds of enjoyment of intellectual activity lack. The greatness in him lies clearly in the triumph of narcissism, the victorious affirmation of the invulnerability of the ego. The rejection of the reality claim and the implementation of the pleasure principle bring humor closer to the regressive or reactionary processes that occupy our attention so much in psychopathology. In a certain situation, the subject suddenly overcathects his superego and then, starting from it, changes the reactions of the ego. The joke is the contribution to the comedy of the unconscious. Likewise, humor would be the contribution to the comic through the mediation of the superego. When the superego uses humor to try to comfort the ego and keep it from suffering, this does not contradict its origin in the paternal authority.

1928
A religious experience
In the fall of 1927, journalist G. S. Viereck published an account of a conversation with Freud, during which he noted Freud's lack of religious belief and indifference to afterlife. This interview was widely read and brought many letters. One was from an American doctor who wrote to Freud to tell him about his religious experience. The doctor described a woman who was in the dissection room and thought that God would not allow such a thing. For the next few days he meditated and then received proof that he needed God to exist. Freud believes that the doctor is carried away by the excitement that arouses him at the sight of the corpse of a woman who reminds him of his mother. It awakened in him a longing for his mother that arose from his Oedipus complex; this was immediately joined by a feeling of indignation against his father. His conceptions of Father and God had not yet diverged very far; his desire to destroy the father could be consciously expressed as a doubt about the existence of God and sought to justify itself to reason as indignation at the mistreatment of a mother-object. The outcome of the struggle, manifested in the realm of religion, was of a kind preordained by the fate of the Oedipus complex: total submission to the will of God the Father. He had had a religious experience and had been converted. This case may shed some light on the psychology of conversion in general.

1928
Dostoyevsky and parricide
The essay on Dostoyevsky and parricide is divided into two distinct parts. The first deals with Dostoyevsky's character in general, with his masochism, his guilt, his epileptic fits and his double posture in the Oedipus complex. The second deals with the specificity of his passion for the game and leads to a story by Stefan Zweig that sheds light on the genesis of this addiction. The essay contains Freud's first discussion of hysterical attacks since his first article on the subject, written 20 years earlier, a reiteration of his later views on the Oedipus complex and guilt, and a sideways glance at the problem of masturbation. Above all, Freud had an opportunity here to express his opinion of a writer whom he put in the forefront.

1928
Dostoyevsky and parricide
Four facets can be distinguished in Dostoyevsky's rich personality: the creative artist, the neurotic, the moralist and the sinner. Dostoyevsky described himself as an epileptic and was viewed as such by others. It is very likely that this alleged epilepsy was just a symptom of his neurosis and should be classified as hysteroepilepsy. Dostoevsky's seizures only took on epileptic forms from the age of 18, when his father was murdered. Before that, however, he suffered from lethargy and drowsiness at a young age, signifying an identification with someone he wished dead. According to a well-known opinion, patricide is the most important and most important crime of humanity as well as of the individual. It is the main source of guilt. It comes from the Oedipus complex. What makes hatred of the father unacceptable is fear of the father; Castration is terrible, either as a punishment or as the price of love. The addition of a second factor to the fear of punishment, fear of the feminine attitude, a strong innate bisexual disposition, becomes neurotic intensification. The publication of Dostoyevsky's posthumous articles and his wife's diaries has thrown a harsh light on the period in Germany when he was obsessed with a gambling addiction that no one could see as more than an unmistakable bout of pathological passion. If gambling, with its fruitless struggles against habit and opportunities for self-punishment, is a repetition of the compulsion to masturbate, we shall not be surprised that it occupied such a large space in Dostoyevsky's life. . In all severe neuroses, efforts to suppress autoerotic satisfaction and their connection with fear of the father are well known.

1936
A Memory Disorder on the Acropolis (1936).
On the occasion of his 70th birthday, Romain Rolland is presented with an open letter. As Freud stood on the Acropolis and looked around at the landscape, a frightening thought came to him: "So everything really exists, just like we learned in school!" The whole mental situation, which is so confused and so difficult to describe seemed can be satisfactorily explained if one assumes that Freud had a momentary feeling at that moment: "'What I see here is not real.' Such a feeling is known as a feeling of derealization. These derealizations are remarkable phenomena that are still poorly understood. They are called sensations, but are obviously complicated processes tied to specific mental content and associated with decisions about that content. There are two general features of derealization phenomena. First, they are all defensive; they aim to keep something away from the ego, to reject it. The second is its dependency on the past, on the ego's memories and previous distressing experiences that may have been repressed by now.

1939
Moses and monotheism: three essays
Essay II. If Moses Were an Egyptian.
Part 6. One Hundred Years of Repressed History.
With the establishment of the new god Yahweh in Kadesh, it became necessary to do something to glorify him. It became necessary to fit in, to make a place for erasing the traces of previous religions. The man Moses was treated by taking him to Midian and Kadesh and merging him with the priest of Yahweh who founded the religion. Circumcision, the most suspicious indication of Egyptian dependence, was retained, but no attempts were spared to separate the custom from Egypt. Patriots were included in biblical stories for two reasons: 1) to acknowledge that Yahweh was worshiped by Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, though not by that name; and 2) connect their memory to specific locations in Canaan. Freud concluded that about 800 years elapsed between the Exodus from Egypt and the fixing of the Bible text under Ezra and Nehemiah. The form of the religion of Yahweh changed to match the original religion of Moses.

1939
Moses and monotheism: three essays
Essays III. Moses, his people and the monotheistic religion:
Part I. Preliminary Remarks I (Vienna) and II (London).
Two preliminary remarks are presented to Moses, his people, and the monotheistic religion. Freud suggests adding a final part to his two essays on Moses in Imago. Psychoanalytic research like this is viewed with suspicious attention by Catholicism. When the psychoanalytic work leads to a result that reduces religion to a neurosis of humanity and explains its enormous power as well as a neurotic compulsion, we can be sure that we are bringing on the resentment of our reigning power. Freud does not intend these essays to be shown publicly or cause a sensation. He predicts that at some point in the future they can be read and evaluated with an open mind. The first preliminary note was written in Vienna, the second in London. When Germany invaded Austria, Freud fled to London, where he felt relatively free to publish his views on Moses. Ever since Freud wrote Totem and Taboo, he has never doubted that religious phenomena can only be understood in terms of the familiar pattern of individual neurotic symptoms. Freud concludes that unless he could draw on an analytical interpretation of the exhibition myth and go from there to Sellin's suspicions about the end of Moses, the whole thing had to remain unwritten.

1939
Moses and monotheism: three essays
Essays III. Moses, his people and the monotheistic religion.
Part I.D. Application.

Freud's construction of early history asserts that in primitive times primitive man lived in small groups, each under the rule of a powerful man. The fate of his sons was harsh: if they aroused their father's jealousy, they were killed, castrated or expelled. Their only avenue was to band together in small communities, procure wives by stealing, and, if one or the other succeeded, attain a position in the primary group similar to that of his father. Totemism is considered to be the first form in which religion manifested itself in human history. The first step in moving away from totemism was the humanization of the worshiped being. Restoring the original father to his historical rights was a great step forward, but it could not be the end. The murder of Moses by his Jewish people, recognized by Sellin because of its tradition, becomes an indispensable part of Freud's construction, an important link between the forgotten event of primeval times and its later emergence in the form of monotheistic religions. It is plausible to surmise that remorse over the murder of Moses gave impetus to the wishful fantasy of the Messiah returning and leading his people to salvation and promises of world domination. Some deep reasons for hatred of Jews are analyzed, including the jealousy of those who, being the firstborn, proclaim themselves to be God's favorite sons, and their practice of circumcision, which is reminiscent of castration.

1939
Moses and monotheism: three essays
Essays III. Moses, his people and the monotheistic religion.
Part II. A. The People of Israel.
Of all the peoples who inhabited the Mediterranean basin in antiquity, the Jews are almost the only ones who still exist in name and substance. He has faced adversity and abuse with an unparalleled capacity for resistance; it has developed special characteristics and acquired the warm dislike of all other races. We can assume that one characteristic of Jews dominates their relationship with others. There is no doubt that they have a particularly high opinion of themselves, that they consider themselves noble, of higher status, and superior to others. At the same time it instills in them a peculiar confidence in life that comes from the secret possession of a precious possession, a kind of optimism: the pious would call it confidence in God. They really see themselves as the chosen people of God, they think they are especially close to him; and that makes them proud and confident. If you're the dreaded father's declared darling, don't be surprised if your siblings are jealous. The course of world history seemed to justify the arrogance of the Jews, because later, when God wanted to send mankind a Messiah and Redeemer, he in turn chose him from among the Jewish people. It was the man Moses who inculcated this quality in the Jewish people. He boosted their self-esteem by assuring them that they were God's chosen people, urged them to be holy, and promised to be different.

1939
Moses and monotheism: three essays
Essays III. Moses, his people and the monotheistic religion.
Part II. D. Abandonment of Instinct.
It is not obvious or immediately understandable why an advance in intellectuality, a regression in sensuality, should increase the self-esteem of either an individual or a people. It seems to imply the existence of a certain standard of value and some other person or entity upholding it. When the id evokes an instinctual demand of an erotic or aggressive nature in man, it is easiest and most natural for the ego, which has the thinking apparatus and the muscular apparatus, to satisfy the demand for an action. This gratification of drives is felt by the ego as pleasure. Instinctive resignation can be forced for both internal and external reasons. The religion that began with the prohibition against making an image of God developed more and more over the centuries into a religion of instinctive renunciation; it is content with a clear restriction of sexual freedom. God, however, distances himself completely from sexuality and rises to the ideal of ethical perfection. Moses sanctified his people by introducing the practice of circumcision. Circumcision is the symbolic substitute for castration, which the Forefather once imposed on his sons in the fullness of his absolute power, and accepting this symbol showed that he was willing to submit to the father's will, even if the father did so most painful sacrifices imposed on him. Some of the principles of ethics are rationally justified by the need to define the rights of the individual against society and between individuals.

Other Works (1937-1939)

1939
Moses and monotheism: three essays
Essay II. If Moses Were an Egyptian.
Part 6. One Hundred Years of Repressed History.
With the establishment of the new god Yahweh in Kadesh, it became necessary to do something to glorify him. It became necessary to fit in, to make a place for erasing the traces of previous religions. The man Moses was treated by taking him to Midian and Kadesh and merging him with the priest of Yahweh who founded the religion. Circumcision, the most suspicious indication of Egyptian dependence, was retained, but no attempts were spared to separate the custom from Egypt. Patriots were included in biblical stories for two reasons: 1) to acknowledge that Yahweh was worshiped by Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, though not by that name; and 2) connect their memory to specific locations in Canaan. Freud concluded that about 800 years elapsed between the Exodus from Egypt and the fixing of the Bible text under Ezra and Nehemiah. The form of the religion of Yahweh changed to match the original religion of Moses.

1939
Moses and monotheism: three essays
Essays III. Moses, his people and the monotheistic religion:
Part I. Preliminary Remarks I (Vienna) and II (London).
Two preliminary remarks are presented to Moses, his people, and the monotheistic religion. Freud suggests adding a final part to his two essays on Moses in Imago. Psychoanalytic research like this is viewed with suspicious attention by Catholicism. When the psychoanalytic work leads to a result that reduces religion to a neurosis of humanity and explains its enormous power as well as a neurotic compulsion, we can be sure that we are bringing on the resentment of our reigning power. Freud does not intend these essays to be shown publicly or cause a sensation. He predicts that at some point in the future they can be read and evaluated with an open mind. The first preliminary note was written in Vienna, the second in London. When Germany invaded Austria, Freud fled to London, where he felt relatively free to publish his views on Moses. Ever since Freud wrote Totem and Taboo, he has never doubted that religious phenomena can only be understood in terms of the familiar pattern of individual neurotic symptoms. Freud concludes that unless he could draw on an analytical interpretation of the exhibition myth and go from there to Sellin's suspicions about the end of Moses, the whole thing had to remain unwritten.

1939
Moses and monotheism: three essays
Essays III. Moses, his people and the monotheistic religion.
Part I.D. Application.

Freud's construction of early history asserts that in primitive times primitive man lived in small groups, each under the rule of a powerful man. The fate of his sons was harsh: if they aroused their father's jealousy, they were killed, castrated or expelled. Their only avenue was to band together in small communities, procure wives by stealing, and, if one or the other succeeded, attain a position in the primary group similar to that of his father. Totemism is considered to be the first form in which religion manifested itself in human history. The first step in moving away from totemism was the humanization of the worshiped being. Restoring the original father to his historical rights was a great step forward, but it could not be the end. The murder of Moses by his Jewish people, recognized by Sellin because of its tradition, becomes an indispensable part of Freud's construction, an important link between the forgotten event of primeval times and its later emergence in the form of monotheistic religions. It is plausible to surmise that remorse over the murder of Moses gave impetus to the wishful fantasy of the Messiah returning and leading his people to salvation and promises of world domination. Some deep reasons for hatred of Jews are analyzed, including the jealousy of those who, being the firstborn, proclaim themselves to be God's favorite sons, and their practice of circumcision, which is reminiscent of castration.

1939
Moses and monotheism: three essays
Essays III. Moses, his people and the monotheistic religion.
Part II. A. The People of Israel.
Of all the peoples who inhabited the Mediterranean basin in antiquity, the Jews are almost the only ones who still exist in name and substance. He has faced adversity and abuse with an unparalleled capacity for resistance; it has developed special characteristics and acquired the warm dislike of all other races. We can assume that one characteristic of Jews dominates their relationship with others. There is no doubt that they have a particularly high opinion of themselves, that they consider themselves noble, of higher status, and superior to others. At the same time it instills in them a peculiar confidence in life that comes from the secret possession of a precious possession, a kind of optimism: the pious would call it confidence in God. They really see themselves as the chosen people of God, they think they are especially close to him; and that makes them proud and confident. If you're the dreaded father's declared darling, don't be surprised if your siblings are jealous. The course of world history seemed to justify the arrogance of the Jews, because later, when God wanted to send mankind a Messiah and Redeemer, he in turn chose him from among the Jewish people. It was the man Moses who inculcated this quality in the Jewish people. He boosted their self-esteem by assuring them that they were God's chosen people, urged them to be holy, and promised to be different.

1939
Moses and monotheism: three essays
Essays III. Moses, his people and the monotheistic religion.
Part II. D. Abandonment of Instinct.
It is not obvious or immediately understandable why an advance in intellectuality, a regression in sensuality, should increase the self-esteem of either an individual or a people. It seems to imply the existence of a certain standard of value and some other person or entity upholding it. When the id evokes an instinctual demand of an erotic or aggressive nature in man, it is easiest and most natural for the ego, which has the thinking apparatus and the muscular apparatus, to satisfy the demand for an action. This gratification of drives is felt by the ego as pleasure. Instinctive resignation can be forced for both internal and external reasons. The religion that began with the prohibition against making an image of God developed more and more over the centuries into a religion of instinctive renunciation; it is content with a clear restriction of sexual freedom. God, however, distances himself completely from sexuality and rises to the ideal of ethical perfection. Moses sanctified his people by introducing the practice of circumcision. Circumcision is the symbolic substitute for castration, which the Forefather once imposed on his sons in the fullness of his absolute power, and accepting this symbol showed that he was willing to submit to the father's will, even if the father did so most painful sacrifices imposed on him. Some of the principles of ethics are rationally justified by the need to define the rights of the individual against society and between individuals.